Kenapa tetes air mata jatuh demi
seseorang yang tidak pernah menjadi kepunyaanku ?????Kenapa aku merindukan
seseorang yang tidak pernah bersamaku dan kubertanya, Kenapa aku mencintai
seseorang yang cintanya tidak pernah untukku ????
Jumat, 15 Oktober 2010
Rabu, 13 Oktober 2010
Dullahan, Legenda Penunggang Kuda Tanpa Kepala
Diantara sekian banyak legenda yang berkenaan mengenai malaikat kematian, Dullahan kiranya salah satu yang paling mengerikan. Disinyalir berasal dari legenda Irlandia, makhluk ini memiliki penampakan yang dapat membuat bulu kuduk siapapun berdiri seketika. Hampir seluruh catatan sejarah maupun mitos mengenai Dullahan menyebutkan bahwa makhluk dari lain tersebut tidak memiliki kepala di tempat yang seharusnya. Jadi kepala sang dewa kematian tersebut selalu dibawa di tangannya, tidak menempel di leher!!
Konon tujuannya adalah agar tangan dapat mengangkat kepala tinggi-tinggi sehingga Dullahan bisa melihat lebih jauh daerah sekitarnya. Wajah Dullahan digambarkan putih pucat, dengan mulut sobek lebar dari satu telinga ke telinga lainnya. Matanya yang kecil bewarna hitam dan menatap dengan sangat tajam; saking tajamnya sampai-sampai siapapun yang melihatnya akan terpaku seketika. Kepala Dullahan juga diliputi aura kehijauan. Aura tersebut membantu Dullahan untuk melihat keadaan sekeliling, jadi kepalanya juga berfungsi sebagai lentera penerang.
Ciri khas Dullahan lainnya adalah cambuk yang selalu dibawanya kemanapun ia pergi, dimana cambuk tersebut konon dibuat dari sulaman tubuh manusia yang sudah meninggal. Penggambaran perawakan Dullahan dari leher ke bawah, memiliki variasi yang lebih beragam. Namun pada umumnya ia memiliki tubuh yang tinggi dengan balutan jubah bewarna hitam. Sebagian kalangan menyebutkanbahwa Dullahan menunggangi seekor kuda hitam, tetapi ada yang menyebutkan bahwa kereta suram yang ditarik oleh 6 ekor kuda hitam merupakan kendaraan Dullahan. Kereta tersebut pun dihiasi dengan objek-objek berbau kematian, dimana hiasan yang paling populer dalam legenda Dullahan adalah tengkorak-tengkorak yang digunakan sebagai alas lilin!! Yang pasti Dullahan selalu muncul dengan aura kegelapan.
Asal-muasal Dullahan diwarnai dengan mitos yang beragam. Salah satunya mengisahkan bahwa makhluk ini merupakan penjelmaan dari salah satu Dewa Kesuburan Celtic bernama Crom Dubh. Dewa tersebut dipuja habis-habisan oleh para raja kuno, terutama Tighermas yang merupakan salah seorang raja terkenal di Irlandia. Setiap tahun Tighermas mengurbankan nyawa-nyawa manusia untuk menyenangkan Crom Dubh. Tapi tradisi pengurbanan manusia ini terhapus pada abad ke-6 setelah masehi, ketika agama Kristen masuk ke Irlandia, dimana kepercayaan para Kristiani akhirnya menghapus kebiasaan kurban manusia yang dianggap sangat tidak berprikemanusiaan. Meski tradisinya dilupakan namun tidak demikian dengan nama besar dan sepak terjang Crom Dubh terus mendatangi manusia untuk mengambil nyawa mereka.
Alasan mengapa Dullahan begitu ditakuti adalah karena penampakan Dullahan biasanya menandakan kematian. Tidak seperti Banshee yang memberikan peringatan terlebih dahulu, makhluk ini bekerja cepat dimana hanya dengan dipanggil namanya saja maka nama orang tersebut akan dicabut. Konon Dullahan sangat senang berkeliaran di tengan festival atau perayaan, khususnya pada perayaan penghormatan Crom Dubh selaku Dewa Kesuburan. Festival tersebut, yang dirayakan oleh rakyat Irlandia, diadakan pada akhir bulan Agustus atau awal bulan September. Setelah menemukan targetnya maka Dullahan akan bergerak setelah festival berakhir, tepatnya ketika si target sendirian. Versi lain menyebutkan bahwa jika Dullahan berhenti di depan seorang manusia yang masih hidup makan orang tersebut akan segera meninggal.
Hal lain yang membuat Dullahan menjadi malaikat kematian yang sangat disegani adalah sifatnya yang sangat individualis. Ia sangat tidak suka dipergoki ketika melancarkan aksinya, dan siapapun yang secara sengaja maupun tidak sengaja melihat sosoknya maka orang itu akan disirami darah. Jika terkena, kemungkinan besar orang tersebut adalah target Dullahan selanjutnya!! Namun selain menyiramkan darah, Dullahan akan mencambuk mata orang yang melihatnya sampai buta. Kelebihan lain dari sosok pencabut nyawa ini adalah kemampuannya dalam menerobos hambatan apapun, entah itu gerbang besi dengan kunci-kunci baja sampai persembunyian paling apik sekalipun. Jadi percuma saja bersembunyi atau mempertahankan diri jika Dullahan sudah mengincar nyawa seseorang.Hal lain yang membuat Dullahan menjadi malaikat kematian yang sangat disegani adalah sifatnya yang sangat individualis. Ia sangat tidak suka dipergoki ketika melancarkan aksinya, dan siapapun yang secara sengaja maupun tidak sengaja melihat sosoknya maka orang itu akan disirami darah. Jika terkena, kemungkinan besar orang tersebut adalah target Dullahan selanjutnya!! Namun selain menyiramkan darah, Dullahan akan mencambuk mata orang yang melihatnya sampai buta. Kelebihan lain dari sosok pencabut nyawa ini adalah kemampuannya dalam menerobos hambatan apapun, entah itu gerbang besi dengan kunci-kunci baja sampai persembunyian paling apik sekalipun. Jadi percuma saja bersembunyi atau mempertahankan diri jika Dullahan sudah mengincar nyawa seseorang.
Diantara segala kengerian mengenai kekuatan Dullahan, sang pencabut nyawa ternyata mempunyai satu kelemahan. Entah mengapa, Dullahan tidak suka dengan emas murni. Bahkan satu koin kecil namun terbuat dari emas murni kabarnya sudah mampu membuat sosok ini tidak mampu mendekat. Oleh karena itu, dalam festival perayaan Crom Dubh biasanya orang-orang Irlandia yang merayakan selalu mengantongi (minimalnya) satu koin emas supaya terhindar dari kejaran Dullahan.
Diantara sekian banyak legenda yang berkenaan mengenai malaikat kematian, Dullahan kiranya salah satu yang paling mengerikan. Disinyalir berasal dari legenda Irlandia, makhluk ini memiliki penampakan yang dapat membuat bulu kuduk siapapun berdiri seketika. Hampir seluruh catatan sejarah maupun mitos mengenai Dullahan menyebutkan bahwa makhluk dari lain tersebut tidak memiliki kepala di tempat yang seharusnya. Jadi kepala sang dewa kematian tersebut selalu dibawa di tangannya, tidak menempel di leher!!
Konon tujuannya adalah agar tangan dapat mengangkat kepala tinggi-tinggi sehingga Dullahan bisa melihat lebih jauh daerah sekitarnya. Wajah Dullahan digambarkan putih pucat, dengan mulut sobek lebar dari satu telinga ke telinga lainnya. Matanya yang kecil bewarna hitam dan menatap dengan sangat tajam; saking tajamnya sampai-sampai siapapun yang melihatnya akan terpaku seketika. Kepala Dullahan juga diliputi aura kehijauan. Aura tersebut membantu Dullahan untuk melihat keadaan sekeliling, jadi kepalanya juga berfungsi sebagai lentera penerang.
Ciri khas Dullahan lainnya adalah cambuk yang selalu dibawanya kemanapun ia pergi, dimana cambuk tersebut konon dibuat dari sulaman tubuh manusia yang sudah meninggal. Penggambaran perawakan Dullahan dari leher ke bawah, memiliki variasi yang lebih beragam. Namun pada umumnya ia memiliki tubuh yang tinggi dengan balutan jubah bewarna hitam. Sebagian kalangan menyebutkanbahwa Dullahan menunggangi seekor kuda hitam, tetapi ada yang menyebutkan bahwa kereta suram yang ditarik oleh 6 ekor kuda hitam merupakan kendaraan Dullahan. Kereta tersebut pun dihiasi dengan objek-objek berbau kematian, dimana hiasan yang paling populer dalam legenda Dullahan adalah tengkorak-tengkorak yang digunakan sebagai alas lilin!! Yang pasti Dullahan selalu muncul dengan aura kegelapan.
Asal-muasal Dullahan diwarnai dengan mitos yang beragam. Salah satunya mengisahkan bahwa makhluk ini merupakan penjelmaan dari salah satu Dewa Kesuburan Celtic bernama Crom Dubh. Dewa tersebut dipuja habis-habisan oleh para raja kuno, terutama Tighermas yang merupakan salah seorang raja terkenal di Irlandia. Setiap tahun Tighermas mengurbankan nyawa-nyawa manusia untuk menyenangkan Crom Dubh. Tapi tradisi pengurbanan manusia ini terhapus pada abad ke-6 setelah masehi, ketika agama Kristen masuk ke Irlandia, dimana kepercayaan para Kristiani akhirnya menghapus kebiasaan kurban manusia yang dianggap sangat tidak berprikemanusiaan. Meski tradisinya dilupakan namun tidak demikian dengan nama besar dan sepak terjang Crom Dubh terus mendatangi manusia untuk mengambil nyawa mereka.
Alasan mengapa Dullahan begitu ditakuti adalah karena penampakan Dullahan biasanya menandakan kematian. Tidak seperti Banshee yang memberikan peringatan terlebih dahulu, makhluk ini bekerja cepat dimana hanya dengan dipanggil namanya saja maka nama orang tersebut akan dicabut. Konon Dullahan sangat senang berkeliaran di tengan festival atau perayaan, khususnya pada perayaan penghormatan Crom Dubh selaku Dewa Kesuburan. Festival tersebut, yang dirayakan oleh rakyat Irlandia, diadakan pada akhir bulan Agustus atau awal bulan September. Setelah menemukan targetnya maka Dullahan akan bergerak setelah festival berakhir, tepatnya ketika si target sendirian. Versi lain menyebutkan bahwa jika Dullahan berhenti di depan seorang manusia yang masih hidup makan orang tersebut akan segera meninggal.
Hal lain yang membuat Dullahan menjadi malaikat kematian yang sangat disegani adalah sifatnya yang sangat individualis. Ia sangat tidak suka dipergoki ketika melancarkan aksinya, dan siapapun yang secara sengaja maupun tidak sengaja melihat sosoknya maka orang itu akan disirami darah. Jika terkena, kemungkinan besar orang tersebut adalah target Dullahan selanjutnya!! Namun selain menyiramkan darah, Dullahan akan mencambuk mata orang yang melihatnya sampai buta. Kelebihan lain dari sosok pencabut nyawa ini adalah kemampuannya dalam menerobos hambatan apapun, entah itu gerbang besi dengan kunci-kunci baja sampai persembunyian paling apik sekalipun. Jadi percuma saja bersembunyi atau mempertahankan diri jika Dullahan sudah mengincar nyawa seseorang.Hal lain yang membuat Dullahan menjadi malaikat kematian yang sangat disegani adalah sifatnya yang sangat individualis. Ia sangat tidak suka dipergoki ketika melancarkan aksinya, dan siapapun yang secara sengaja maupun tidak sengaja melihat sosoknya maka orang itu akan disirami darah. Jika terkena, kemungkinan besar orang tersebut adalah target Dullahan selanjutnya!! Namun selain menyiramkan darah, Dullahan akan mencambuk mata orang yang melihatnya sampai buta. Kelebihan lain dari sosok pencabut nyawa ini adalah kemampuannya dalam menerobos hambatan apapun, entah itu gerbang besi dengan kunci-kunci baja sampai persembunyian paling apik sekalipun. Jadi percuma saja bersembunyi atau mempertahankan diri jika Dullahan sudah mengincar nyawa seseorang.
Diantara segala kengerian mengenai kekuatan Dullahan, sang pencabut nyawa ternyata mempunyai satu kelemahan. Entah mengapa, Dullahan tidak suka dengan emas murni. Bahkan satu koin kecil namun terbuat dari emas murni kabarnya sudah mampu membuat sosok ini tidak mampu mendekat. Oleh karena itu, dalam festival perayaan Crom Dubh biasanya orang-orang Irlandia yang merayakan selalu mengantongi (minimalnya) satu koin emas supaya terhindar dari kejaran Dullahan.
Rabu, 06 Oktober 2010
Joseph Stalin Vissarionovich (18 Desember 1878[2] - 5 Maret 1953) adalah seorang Soviet politikus dan kepala negara yang menjabat sebagai Sekretaris Jenderal pertama dari Partai Komunis Uni Soviet's Komite Pusat dari 1922 sampai kematiannya pada tahun 1953. Setelah kematian Vladimir Lenin pada tahun 1924, Stalin naik untuk menjadi pemimpin Uni Soviet, yang ia memerintah sebagai diktator.
Stalin meluncurkan ekonomi komando, menggantikan Kebijakan Ekonomi Baru tahun 1920-an dengan Rencana Lima Tahun dan meluncurkan periode cepat industrialisasi dan kolektivisasi ekonomi. Pergolakan di sektor pertanian terganggu produksi pangan, mengakibatkan kelaparan luas, termasuk bencana kelaparan Soviet 1932-1933 (dikenal di Ukraina sebagai Holodomor).[3]
Selama akhir 1930-an, Stalin meluncurkan Pembersihan Besar (juga dikenal sebagai "Teror Besar"), sebuah kampanye untuk membersihkan Partai Komunis dari orang yang dituduh sabotase, terorisme, atau pengkhianatan, ia diperluas ke militer lain sektor dan Soviet masyarakat. Dalam prakteknya, pembersihan yang sembarangan. Target sering dieksekusi, dipenjara di kamp kerja paksa Gulag atau diasingkan. Pada tahun-tahun yang diikuti, jutaan anggota etnis minoritas juga dideportasi.[4][5]
Pada tahun 1939, setelah gagal upaya untuk membangun sistem keamanan kolektif di Eropa,[rujukan?][klarifikasi diperlukan] Stalin menandatangani pakta non-agresi dengan Nazi Jerman, diikuti oleh invasi Soviet Polandia, Finlandia, yang Baltik, Bessarabia dan utara Bukovina. Setelah Jerman melanggar perjanjian itu pada tahun 1941, Uni Soviet bergabung dengan Sekutu untuk memainkan peran utama dalam kekalahan Axis, pada biaya angka kematian terbesar untuk setiap negara dalam perang (sebagian besar disebabkan oleh kematian massal warga sipil di wilayah diduduki oleh Nazi). Setelah perang, Stalin diinstal pemerintah komunis tunduk di kebanyakan negara di Eropa Timur, membentuk blok Timur, di balik apa yang disebut sebagai "Tirai Besi"dari pemerintahan Soviet selama Perang Dingin.
Stalin dipupuk suatu kultus kepribadian sekitar dirinya, namun setelah kematiannya, penerusnya, Nikita Khrushchev, mencela warisannya dan melaju proses de-Stalinisasi Uni Soviet.[6]
Isi [hide]
1 Awal kehidupan
2 Revolusi, Perang Sipil dan Perang Polandia-Soviet
2.1 Peran selama Revolusi Rusia 1917
2.2 Peran dalam Perang Saudara Rusia, 1917-1919
2.3 Peran dalam Perang Soviet-Polandia, 1919-1921
3 Naik ke kekuasaan
4 Perubahan masyarakat Soviet, 1927-1939
4.1 Soviet memperkuat layanan rahasia dan intelijen
4.2 Cult kepribadian
4.3 pembersihan dan deportasi
4.4 Kolektivisasi
4.5 kelaparan
4.6 Industrialisasi
4.7 Ilmu
4.8 Jasa pelayanan sosial
4.9 Budaya
4.10 Agama
4.11 teori
5 Menghitung jumlah korban
6 Perang Dunia II, 1939-1945
6.1 Pakta dengan Hitler
6.2 Menerapkan pembagian Eropa Timur dan invasi lainnya
6.3 Hitler istirahat pakta
6.4 Soviet menghentikan Jerman
6,5 Soviet push ke Jerman
6.6 Final kemenangan
6.7 Nobel Perdamaian nominasi
6.8 dipertanyakan taktik
6.9 Sekutu konferensi pada pasca-perang Eropa
7 Pasca-perang era, 1945-1953
7.1 Para Tirai Besi dan Blok Timur
7.2 Hubungan Sino-Soviet
7.3 Korea Utara
7.4 Israel
7,5 Falsifiers Sejarah
7.6 Domestik Dukungan
7.7 "Dokter 'plot"
8 Kematian dan sesudahnya
8.1 Kemudian analisis kematian
8.2 Reaksi oleh para penerusnya
8.3 Pandangan tentang Stalin di Federasi Rusia
9 Kehidupan pribadi
9.1 Asal nama, julukan dan samaran
9.2 Penampilan
9.3 Perkawinan dan keluarga
9.4 Kebiasaan
9.5 Agama keyakinan dan kebijakan
10 Hipotesis, rumor dan kesalahpahaman tentang Stalin
11 Pekerjaan
12 Lihat juga
13 Referensi
13.1 Catatan
13.2 Bibliografi
13.3 Bacaan lebih lanjut
14 Pranala luar
Kehidupan awal
Artikel utama: Awal kehidupan Joseph Stalin
Young Stalin, sekitar tahun 1894, usia 16
Stalin lahir Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili (Georgia: იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი) pada tanggal 18 Desember 1878[2] ke tukang sepatu di kota Gori, Georgia. Pada usia tujuh tahun, ia dikontrak cacar, yang permanen bekas luka wajahnya. Pada pukul sepuluh, ia mulai bersekolah gereja dimana anak-anak Georgia terpaksa berbahasa Rusia. Pada usia dua belas tahun, kecelakaan kereta yang ditarik kuda tinggal dua lengan kirinya rusak secara permanen. Pada enam belas, ia menerima beasiswa ke Ortodoks Georgia seminari, di mana ia memberontak melawan imperialis dan ketertiban agama. Meskipun ia tampil baik di sana, ia dikeluarkan pada tahun 1899 setelah absen ujian akhir. seminari's catatan menyarankan ia tidak mampu untuk membayar biaya pendidikan itu.[7]
Kartu informasi mengenai "IV Stalin", dari file-file dari polisi rahasia Tsar di Saint Petersburg, 1911[8]
Tak lama setelah meninggalkan seminari itu, Stalin menemukan tulisan-tulisan Vladimir Lenin dan memutuskan untuk menjadi seorang revolusioner Marxis, Lenin akhirnya bergabung dengan Bolshevik pada tahun 1903. Setelah ditandai dengan Okhranka (polisi rahasia Tsar) untuk aktivitasnya, ia menjadi full-time revolusioner dan penjahat. Ia menjadi salah satu Bolshevikkoperasi kepala 'di Kaukasus, pengorganisasian paramiliter, menghasut pemogokan, menyebarkan propaganda dan meningkatkan uang melalui perampokan bank, tebusan penculikan dan pemerasan.
Pada musim panas tahun 1906, Stalin menikah Ekaterina Svanidze, yang kemudian melahirkan anak pertama Stalin, Yakov. Stalin sementara mengundurkan diri dari partai atas larangan perampokan bank, mendalangi serangan besar di pengiriman bank yang mengakibatkan kematian 40 orang[9] dan kemudian melarikan diri ke Baku, di mana Ekaterina meninggal karena tifus. Di Baku, Stalin terorganisir Muslim Azerbaijan dan Persia dalam kegiatan partisan, termasuk pembunuhan banyak "Ratusan Hitam"pendukung sayap kanan Tsar, dan melakukan raket perlindungan, tebusan penculikan, pemalsuan operasi dan perampokan.
Stalin ditangkap dan dikirim ke Siberia tujuh kali, tetapi melarikan diri sebagian besar orang buangan. Setelah dibebaskan dari satu pengasingan tersebut, pada bulan April 1912 di Saint Petersburg, Stalin menciptakan koran Pravda dari koran partai yang ada. Dia akhirnya mengadopsi nama "Stalin", dari kata Rusia untuk baja, yang digunakan sebagai alias dan nama pena dalam menerbitkan karya-karyanya.
Selama pengasingan terakhirnya, Stalin diwajibkan oleh tentara Rusia untuk bertarung di Perang Dunia I, tetapi dianggap tidak layak untuk pelayanan karena lengan kirinya rusak.[10]
Revolusi, Perang Saudara, dan Perang Polandia-Soviet
Artikel utama: Joseph Stalin dalam Revolusi Rusia, Perang Saudara Rusia, dan Perang Polandia-Soviet
Peran selama Revolusi Rusia 1917
Setelah kembali ke Saint Petersburg dari pengasingan, Stalin terguling Vyacheslav Molotov dan Alexander Shlyapnikov sebagai editor Pravda. Ia kemudian mengambil posisi mendukung mendukung Alexander Kerensky's pemerintah sementara. Namun, setelah Lenin menang di Partai 1917 konferensi April, Stalin dan Pravda didukung menggulingkan pemerintah sementara. Pada konferensi ini, Stalin terpilih untuk Komite Sentral Bolshevik. Setelah Lenin berpartisipasi dalam sebuah revolusi berusaha, Stalin membantu Lenin menghindari penangkapan dan, untuk menghindari pertumpahan darah, memerintahkan Bolshevik terkepung untuk menyerah.[8]
Dia menyelundupkan Lenin ke Finlandia dan diasumsikan kepemimpinan Bolshevik.[8] Setelah Bolshevik dipenjara dibebaskan untuk membantu mempertahankan Saint Petersburg, pada bulan Oktober 1917, Komite Sentral Bolshevik memberikan suara mendukung sebuah pemberontakan.[8] Pada tanggal 7 November, dari yang Smolny Institute, Stalin, Lenin dan sisanya dari Komite Sentral terkoordinasi kudeta terhadap pemerintah Kerensky-yang disebut Revolusi Oktober. Kerensky meninggalkan modal untuk rally pasukan Imperial di depan Jerman. 8 November, Istana Musim Dingin telah menyerbu dan Kerensky Kabinet telah ditangkap.
Peran dalam Perang Saudara Rusia, 1917-1919
Joseph Stalin, Vladimir Lenin, dan Mikhail Kalinin pertemuan di tahun 1919. Ketiga dari mereka "Bolshevik Lama"-anggota Bolshevik partai sebelum Revolusi Rusia tahun 1917.
Setelah merebut Petrograd, Stalin diangkat Rakyat Commissar untuk 'Urusan kebangsaan.[11] Setelah itu, perang saudara pecah di Rusia, pitting Lenin Red Army terhadap Tentara Putih, sebuah aliansi longgar kekuatan anti-Bolshevik. Lenin membentuk lima anggota Politbiro yang termasuk Stalin dan Trotsky. Pada bulan Mei 1918, Lenin Stalin dikirim ke kota Tsaritsyn. Melalui sekutu barunya, Kliment Voroshilov dan Semyon Budyonny, Stalin dikenakan pengaruhnya di militer.[11]
Stalin menantang banyak keputusan Trotsky, memerintahkan pembunuhan Tsar banyak mantan perwira di Tentara Merah dan kontra-revolusioner[11][12] dan desa-desa dibakar dalam rangka untuk mengintimidasi kaum tani menjadi tunduk dan mencegah serangan bandit pada pengiriman makanan.[11] Pada bulan Mei 1919, dalam rangka membendung desersi massa di bagian depan Barat, Stalin desertir dan murtad publik dijalankan sebagai pengkhianat.[11]
Peran dalam Perang Polandia-Soviet, 1919-1921
Setelah mereka Perang Saudara Rusia kemenangan, kaum Bolshevik bergerak untuk mendirikan sebuah lingkup pengaruh di Eropa Tengah, dimulai dengan apa yang menjadi Perang Polandia-Soviet. Sebagai komandan dari front selatan,[11] Stalin bertekad untuk mengambil-menguasai kota Polandia Lviv. Ini bertentangan dengan strategi umum yang ditetapkan oleh Lenin dan Trotsky, yang difokuskan pada penangkapan Warsawa utara lebih lanjut.
Trotskys 'pasukan terlibat dengan orang-orang dari komandan Polandia Władysław Sikorski pada Pertempuran Warsawa, tetapi Stalin menolak untuk mengarahkan pasukannya dari Lviv untuk membantu.[11] Akibatnya, pertempuran untuk kedua Lviv dan Warsawa hilang, yang Stalin dipersalahkan . Stalin kembali ke Moskow pada Agustus 1920, di mana ia membela dirinya sendiri dan mengundurkan diri komisi militer.[11] Pada Kesembilan Konferensi Partai pada tanggal 22 September, Trotsky secara terbuka mengkritik's perilaku Stalin.[11]
Kemudian karirnya, Stalin adalah untuk mengkompensasi bencana 1920.[13] Ia akan menjamin kematian Trotsky, Lviv aman dalam pakta Nazi-Soviet, melaksanakan veteran Polandia -Soviet Perang Polandia dalam pembantaian Katyn; mendirikan dengan pengambilalihan Soviet di Eropa Timur, dan di Yalta, permintaan yang Lviv akan diserahkan oleh Polandia ke Uni Soviet.[13][14]
Naik ke kekuasaan
Artikel utama: Rise of Joseph Stalin
Stalin memainkan peranan penting dalam rekayasa 1921 invasi Tentara Merah Georgia, berikut ini yang diadopsi khususnya garis keras, kebijakan sentralistis terhadap Soviet Georgia, yang termasuk Affair Georgia tahun 1922 dan represi lainnya.[15][16] Hal ini menciptakan sebuah celah dengan Lenin, yang percaya bahwa semua negara Soviet harus berdiri sama.
Lenin masih dianggap Stalin sebagai sekutu setia, dan ketika ia mendapat terperosok dalam percekcokan dengan Trotsky dan politisi lain, ia memutuskan untuk memberikan lebih banyak kekuatan Stalin. Dengan bantuan Kamenev, Lenin Stalin diangkat sebagai Sekretaris Jenderal pada tahun 1922.[11] Posting ini memungkinkan Stalin untuk menunjuk banyak sekutu untuk posisi pemerintah.
Lenin menderita stroke pada 1922, memaksa dia ke semi-pensiun di Gorki. Stalin sering mengunjunginya, bertindak sebagai perantara dengan dunia luar.[11] Pasangan ini bertengkar dan hubungan mereka memburuk.[11] Lenin didikte semakin meremehkan catatan tentang Stalin pada apa yang akan menjadi wasiat. Dia mengkritik sikap kasar's Stalin, ambisi yang berlebihan, kekuasaan dan politik, dan menyarankan bahwa Stalin harus dihapus dari posisi Sekretaris Jenderal.[11] Selama semi-Lenin pensiun itu, Stalin menjalin kemitraan dengan Kamenev dan Grigory Zinoviev terhadap Trotsky. Sekutu ini dicegah Lenin Perjanjian dari yang diturunkan kepada kedua belas Partai Kongres pada April 1923.[11]
Lenin meninggal karena serangan jantung pada tanggal 21 Januari 1924. Sekali lagi, Kamenev dan Zinoviev membantu untuk menjaga's Perjanjian Lenin dari go publik. Setelah itu,'s sengketa Stalin dengan Kamenev dan Zinoviev diintensifkan. Trotsky, Kamenev dan Zinoviev tumbuh semakin terisolasi, dan akhirnya dikeluarkan dari Komite Sentral dan kemudian dari Partai itu sendiri.[11] Kamenev dan Zinoviev kemudian diterima kembali, tapi Trotsky diasingkan dari Uni Soviet.
Stalin mendorong industrialisasi yang lebih cepat dan kontrol pusat ekonomi, melanggar Lenin Kebijakan Ekonomi Baru. Pada akhir 1927, kekurangan penting dalam persediaan gandum diminta Stalin untuk mendorong kolektivisasi pertanian dan ketertiban kejang dari menimbun gandum dari kulak petani.[11][12] Bukharin dan Premier Rykov menyerang kebijakan-kebijakan ini dan menganjurkan kembali ke NEP, tetapi sisa Politbiro sisi dengan Stalin dan dihapus Bukharin dari Politbiro pada bulan November 1929. Rykov dipecat pada tahun berikutnya, dan digantikan oleh Vyacheslav Molotov di's rekomendasi Stalin.
Pada bulan Desember 1934, yang populer Sergei Kirov dibunuh. Stalin menyalahkan's pembunuhan Kirov pada konspirasi besar penyabot dan Trotskyites. Dia melancarkan pembersihan besar-besaran terhadap musuh-musuh internal, menempatkan mereka pada dicurangi percobaan menunjukkan dan kemudian setelah mereka dieksekusi atau dipenjarakan di gulag di Siberia. Di antara korban adalah musuh-musuh lama, termasuk Bukharin, Rykov, Kamenev dan Zinoviev. Stalin membuat setia Nikolai Yezhov kepala polisi rahasia, NKVD, dan menyuruhnya membersihkan NKVD dari Bolshevik veteran. Dengan tidak ada lawan serius yang tersisa di kekuasaan, Stalin mengakhiri pembersihan pada tahun 1938. Yezhov diadakan untuk disalahkan atas ekses dari Teror Besar, dan diberhentikan dan kemudian dieksekusi.
Perubahan masyarakat Soviet, 1927-1939
Memperkuat layanan rahasia Soviet dan kecerdasan
Artikel utama: Kronologis lembaga polisi rahasia Soviet
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Stalin sangat meningkatkan cakupan dan kekuatan polisi rahasia negara dan badan-badan intelijen. Di bawah membimbing tangannya, pasukan intelijen Soviet mulai mendirikan jaringan intelijen di sebagian besar negara-negara utama dunia, termasuk Jerman (yang terkenal Rote Kappelle cincin mata-mata), Inggris, Perancis, Jepang, dan Amerika Serikat. Stalin tidak melihat perbedaan antara spionase, komunis tindakan propaganda politik, dan negara-kekerasan sanksi, dan ia mulai mengintegrasikan semua kegiatan dalam NKVD. Stalin memanfaatkan besar dari Komunis Internasional gerakan untuk menyusup agen dan untuk memastikan bahwa partai komunis asing tetap pro-Soviet dan pro-Stalin.
Salah satu contoh terbaik dari kemampuan Stalin untuk mengintegrasikan polisi rahasia dan spionase asing datang pada 1940, ketika ia memberikan persetujuan untuk polisi rahasia untuk memiliki Leon Trotsky dibunuh di Meksiko.[17]
Cult kepribadian
Stalin menciptakan sebuah kultus pribadi di Uni Soviet sekitar kedua dirinya dan Lenin. kultus Banyak kepribadian dalam sejarah telah sering diukur dan dibandingkan dengan Nya. Banyak kota-kota, desa dan kota diberi nama setelah pemimpin Uni Soviet (lihat Daftar tempat bernama setelah Stalin) dan Hadiah Stalin dan Stalin Peace Prize diberi nama untuk menghormatinya. Dia menerima gelar muluk-muluk (misalnya "dirigen Sains, "" Bapak Bangsa, "" Brilliant Genius Kemanusiaan, "" Great Arsitek komunisme, "" Gardener Kebahagiaan Manusia, "dan lain-lain), dan membantu menulis ulang sejarah Soviet untuk menyediakan dirinya yang signifikan peran yang lebih dalam revolusi. Pada saat yang sama, menurut Khrushchev, dia bersikeras bahwa dia akan dikenang "karakteristik kesantunan luar biasa yang benar-benar orang-orang hebat." Patung Stalin menggambarkan dia di ketinggian dan membangun mendekati Alexander III, sedangkan bukti foto menunjukkan dia adalah antara 5 ft 5 in dan 5 ft 6 in (165-168 cm).[18]
Trotsky mengkritik kultus kepribadian dibangun di sekitar Stalin. Ini mencapai tingkat baru selama Perang Dunia II, dengan nama Stalin dimasukkan dalam Soviet baru lagu kebangsaan. Stalin menjadi fokus sastra, puisi, musik, lukisan dan film, menunjukkan pengabdian menjilat, mengkredit Stalin dengan dewa-seperti kualitas hampir, dan menyarankan dia seorang diri memenangkan Perang Dunia Kedua. Hal ini bisa diperdebatkan seperti bagaimana Stalin banyak menikmati kultus sekitarnya. Para komunis Finlandia Tuominen catatan bersulang sarkastik diusulkan oleh Stalin pada Tahun Baru Partai pada tahun 1935 di mana ia berkata, "Kamerad inginkan! saya mengusulkan bersulang untuk hidup, kita patriark dan matahari, pembebas bangsa, arsitek [sosialisme ia terguncang off semua appellations diterapkan untuk dia di hari-hari] - Josef Stalin Vissarionovich, dan saya berharap ini adalah pidato pertama dan terakhir dibuat untuk jenius bahwa malam ini ".[19]
Dalam pidato tahun 1956, Nikita Khrushchev memberikan kecaman dari Teman-tindakan Stalin: "Ini adalah tidak diperbolehkan dan asing dengan semangat Marxisme-Leninisme untuk mengangkat satu orang, untuk mengubahnya menjadi superman yang memiliki karakteristik supernatural mirip dengan yang dari Tuhan."[6]
Pembersihan dan deportasi
Pembersihan
Artikel utama: Great Purge
Waktu: Beria's Januari 1940 surat kepada Stalin, meminta izin untuk mengeksekusi 346 "musuh Partai Komunis Uni Soviet dan dari pemerintah Soviet"yang melakukan" kontra-revolusioner, kanan Trotskyis merencanakan dan memata-matai kegiatan "
Tengah: Stalin tulisan tangan: "за" (dukungan).
Kanan: Politbiro's Keputusan ditandatangani oleh Sekretaris Stalin
Stalin, sebagai kepala Politbiro, listrik di dekat-mutlak konsolidasi tahun 1930-an dengan Pembersihan Besar partai, dibenarkan sebagai upaya untuk mengusir 'oportunis' dan '-revolusioner penyusup counter'.[20][21] Mereka sasaran membersihkan sering diusir dari partai, lebih parah namun tindakan berkisar dari pembuangan ke Gulag kamp kerja paksa, untuk eksekusi setelah uji coba yang diselenggarakan oleh troikas NKVD.[20][22][23]
Pada 1930, Stalin tampaknya menjadi semakin khawatir tentang semakin populernya Sergei Kirov. Pada 1934 Partai Kongres dimana memilih Komite Sentral baru diadakan, Kirov menerima hanya tiga suara negatif, yang paling kecil dari setiap calon, sedangkan Stalin menerima 1.108 suara negatif.[24] Setelah pembunuhan Kirov, yang mungkin telah diatur oleh Stalin, Stalin menciptakan skema rinci untuk melibatkan pemimpin oposisi dalam pembunuhan, termasuk Trotsky, Kamenev dan Zinoviev.[25] The penyidikan dan pengadilan diperluas.[26] Stalin mengesahkan undang-undang baru tentang "organisasi teroris dan tindakan teroris", yang itu harus diselidiki untuk tidak lebih dari sepuluh hari, tanpa penuntutan, pengacara pembela atau banding, diikuti dengan kalimat yang dijalankan "dengan cepat."[27]
Setelah itu, beberapa percobaan yang dikenal sebagai Moskow Ujian diadakan, tetapi prosedur direplikasi di seluruh negeri. Pasal 58 dari kode hukum, daftar dilarang kegiatan anti-Soviet sebagai kejahatan kontra diterapkan dengan cara yang luas.[28] The dalih flimsiest sering cukup untuk seseorang merek sebuah "musuh rakyat", memulai siklus penganiayaan publik dan pelecehan, seringkali melanjutkan ke interogasi, penyiksaan dan deportasi, jika tidak mati. The troika kata Rusia memperoleh arti baru: sebuah disederhanakan, sidang cepat oleh sebuah komite tiga subordinasi untuk NKVD -troika NKVDdengan hukuman dilakukan dalam waktu 24 jam. -[27]
Nikolai Yezhov, pemuda berjalan dengan Stalin di foto atas dari tahun 1930-an, ditembak pada tahun 1940. Setelah kematiannya, Yezhov keluar diedit dari foto dengan sensor Soviet.[29] retouching tersebut adalah kejadian umum selama ini pemerintahan Stalin.
pemimpin militer Banyak yang dihukum karena pengkhianatan, dan skala besar pembersihan Red Army perwira diikuti.[30] Represi peringkat revolusioner banyak sebelumnya tinggi sehingga dan anggota partai menyebabkan Leon Trotsky untuk mengklaim bahwa "sungai darah" dipisahkan rezim Stalin dari Lenin.[31] Pada bulan Agustus 1940, Trotsky dibunuh di Meksiko, di mana ia telah tinggal di pengasingan sejak Januari 1937, ini menghilangkan terakhir itu lawan Stalin antara kepemimpinan Partai mantan.[32] hanya tiga "Old Bolshevik"(Lenin Politbiro) yang tersisa adalah Stalin, Mikhail Kalinin, dan Ketua Sovnarkom Vyacheslav Molotov.
operasi Massa dari NKVD juga ditargetkan "kontingen nasional" (etnis asing) seperti Polandia, suku Jerman, Korea, dll Sebanyak 350.000 (144.000 dari mereka Polandia) ditangkap dan 247.157 (110.000 Polandia) dieksekusi.[12] Banyak orang Amerika yang berimigrasi ke Uni Soviet selama terburuk Depresi Besar itu dijalankan; lainnya dikirim ke kamp-kamp penjara atau gulag.[33] Bersamaan dengan pembersihan, upaya dilakukan untuk menulis ulang sejarah dalam buku teks dan bahan propaganda Soviet lainnya . orang terkenal dieksekusi oleh NKVD telah dihapus dari teks dan foto-foto seolah-olah mereka tidak pernah ada. Secara bertahap, sejarah revolusi berubah untuk cerita tentang dua karakter utama: Lenin dan Stalin.
Dalam terang wahyu dari arsip Soviet, sejarawan kini memperkirakan bahwa hampir 700.000 orang (353.074 pada tahun 1937 dan 328.612 pada 1938) dieksekusi dalam perjalanan teror,[34] dengan massa korban yang sangat banyak yang "biasa" warga Soviet: buruh, petani, ibu rumah tangga, guru, imam, musisi, tentara, pensiunan, balerina, pengemis.[35][36] Beberapa ahli percaya bukti dilepaskan dari arsip Soviet bersahaja, tidak lengkap atau tidak dapat diandalkan.[37][38][39][40][41] Sebagai contoh, Robert Conquest menunjukkan bahwa angka kemungkinan untuk eksekusi selama tahun-tahun Pembersihan Besar tidak 681.692, namun beberapa dua setengah kali lebih tinggi. Ia percaya bahwa KGB menutupi trek dengan memalsukan tanggal dan penyebab kematian korban direhabilitasi.[42]
Stalin secara pribadi ditandatangani 357 pelarangan daftar pada tahun 1937 dan 1938 yang mengutuk eksekusi sekitar 40.000 orang, dan sekitar 90% di antaranya dikonfirmasi telah ditembak.[43] Pada saat itu, saat meninjau salah satu daftar tersebut, Stalin dilaporkan bergumam kepada siapa pun khususnya: "akan mengingat semua ini riff-sampah dalam sepuluh atau dua puluh tahun Tidak ada waktu?'s. Who Siapa yang mengingat nama-nama sekarang dari bangsawan Ivan the Terrible dari? Tidak punya. satu menyingkirkan "[44] Di samping itu, Stalin dikirim kontingen NKVD operatif untuk Mongolia, mendirikan versi Mongolia dari troika NKVD dan melepaskan pembersihan berdarah di mana puluhan ribu orang dieksekusi sebagai 'Spies Jepang. " Mongolia penguasa Khorloogiin Choibalsan diikuti's memimpin Stalin.[45]
Penduduk transfer
Artikel utama: Penduduk transfer di Uni Soviet
Pertemuan di sel penjara, sebuah ilustrasi oleh Eufrosinia Kersnovskaya
Sesaat sebelum, selama dan segera setelah Perang Dunia II, Stalin melakukan serangkaian deportasi pada skala besar yang sangat mempengaruhi peta etnis Uni Soviet. Diperkirakan bahwa antara tahun 1941 dan 1949 hampir 3,3 juta[4] dideportasi ke Siberia dan republik Asia Tengah. Dengan beberapa perkiraan hingga 43% dari populasi dipindahkan meninggal karena penyakit dan kekurangan gizi.[46]
Separatisme, ketahanan terhadap pemerintahan Soviet dan kolaborasi dengan Jerman menyerang dikutip sebagai alasan resmi untuk deportasi, benar atau salah. keadaan individu dari mereka menghabiskan waktu di wilayah yang diduduki Jerman tidak diperiksa.[47] Setelah pendudukan Nazi singkat Kaukasus, seluruh penduduk lima dari masyarakat dataran tinggi kecil dan Tatar Krimea - lebih dari satu juta orang secara total - dideportasi tanpa pemberitahuan atau kesempatan apapun untuk mengambil harta mereka.[47]
Selama ini pemerintahan Stalin kelompok etnis berikut dideportasi sepenuhnya atau sebagian: Ukraina, Polandia, Rumania, Korea, Volga Jerman, Crimean Tatar, Kalmyks, Chechen, Ingush, Balkars, Karachays, Meskhetian Turki, Finlandia, Bulgaria, Yunani, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonians, dan Yahudi. Sejumlah besar kulak, terlepas dari kewarganegaraan mereka, yang dipindahkan ke Siberia dan Asia Tengah. Deportasi terjadi dalam kondisi yang mengerikan, seringkali dengan truk ternak, dan ratusan ribu dideportasi meninggal dalam perjalanan.[4] Mereka yang selamat dipaksa bekerja tanpa bayaran di kamp kerja paksa. Banyak dideportasi meninggal karena kelaparan atau kondisi lainnya.
Menurut perkiraan Soviet resmi, lebih dari 14 juta orang melewati Gulag 1929-1953, dengan 7 sampai 8 lebih juta yang dideportasi dan diasingkan ke daerah-daerah terpencil di Uni Soviet (termasuk seluruh bangsa dalam beberapa kasus).[48]
Pada bulan Februari 1956, Nikita Khrushchev mengutuk deportasi sebagai pelanggaran Leninisme, dan diputarbalikkan sebagian besar dari mereka, meskipun tidak sampai tahun 1991 bahwa Tatar, Meskhetians dan Volga Jerman diizinkan untuk kembali secara besar-besaran ke daerah asal mereka. Deportasi memiliki efek mendalam pada masyarakat Uni Soviet. Memori dari deportasi memainkan peranan utama dalam gerakan separatis di Amerika Baltik, Tatarstan , dan Chechnya, bahkan hari ini.
Kolektipisasi
Artikel utama: Kolektivisasi di Uni Soviet
rezim Stalin pindah untuk memaksa kolektivisasi pertanian. Ini dimaksudkan untuk meningkatkan hasil pertanian dari skala mekanik peternakan-besar, untuk membawa kaum tani di bawah pengawasan langsung politik lebih, dan untuk membuat koleksi pajak lebih efisien. Kolektivisasi berarti perubahan sosial drastis, pada skala yang tidak terlihat sejak penghapusan perhambaan pada tahun 1861, dan keterasingan dari kontrol atas tanah dan produknya. Kolektivisasi juga berarti penurunan drastis standar hidup bagi banyak petani, dan menghadapi reaksi keras di kalangan kaum tani.
Pada tahun-tahun pertama kolektivisasi diperkirakan bahwa produksi industri akan naik 200% dan produksi pertanian sebesar 50%,[49] namun perkiraan ini tidak dipenuhi. Stalin menyalahkan kegagalan ini tak terduga pada kulak (petani kaya), yang menolak kolektivisasi. (Namun, kulak tepat terdiri hanya 4% dari populasi petani, para "kulak" yang ditargetkan Stalin termasuk dari sedikit lebih baik-off petani mengambil siapa beban kekerasan OGPU dan Komsomol tersebut. ini petani sekitar 60% dari populasi). Mereka secara resmi didefinisikan sebagai "kulak," "pembantu kulak," dan kemudian "mantan-kulak" itu harus ditembak, ditempatkan dalam Gulag kamp kerja paksa, atau dideportasi ke daerah-daerah terpencil di negeri ini, tergantung pada tagihan. Archival data menunjukkan bahwa 20.201 orang telah dieksekusi selama tahun 1930, tahun Dekulakization.[45]
The-tahap kemajuan dua kolektivisasi-sela tahun dengan cara yang terkenal editorial's Stalin, "Dizzy dengan keberhasilan"[50] dan "Balas ke Kolektif Farm Kawan-kawan"[51]-merupakan contoh utama dari kapasitasnya untuk penarikan politik taktis diikuti oleh intensifikasi strategi awal.
Kelaparan
Kelaparan mempengaruhi bagian lain dari Uni Soviet. Jumlah korban tewas akibat kelaparan di Uni Soviet saat ini diperkirakan antara lima dan sepuluh juta orang.[52] Kegagalan panen terburuk dari tsar Rusia akhir, pada tahun 1892, telah menyebabkan 375.000 menjadi 400.000 kematian.[53] Kebanyakan sarjana modern setuju bahwa kelaparan tersebut disebabkan oleh kebijakan pemerintah Uni Soviet di bawah Stalin, bukan oleh alasan alami.[54]
Memasuki Gulag (daun dari Eufrosinia Kersnovskayanotebook s ')
Menurut Alan Bullock, "biji-bijian tanaman Soviet total tidak lebih buruk dari pada 1931 ... itu bukan gagal panen tetapi tuntutan yang berlebihan dari negara, kejam dipaksakan, bahwa biaya hidup sebanyak lima juta petani Ukraina . " Stalin menolak untuk melepaskan cadangan biji-bijian besar yang bisa meringankan bencana kelaparan, sambil terus ekspor gandum, ia yakin bahwa para petani Ukraina telah menyembunyikan gandum pergi, dan ketat kejam kolektif-pertanian pencurian undang-undang baru di respon.[55][56] sejarawan lain tahan sebagian besar panen tidak cukup 1931 dan 1932 disebabkan oleh berbagai bencana alam yang mengakibatkan kelaparan, dengan panen yang sukses tahun 1933 mengakhiri kelaparan.[57] Soviet dan sejarawan lain berpendapat bahwa kolektivisasi cepat pertanian diperlukan untuk mencapai cepat industrialisasi yang sama dari Uni Soviet dan akhirnya menang Perang Dunia II. Hal ini masih diperdebatkan oleh para sejarawan lainnya; Alec Nove mengklaim bahwa Uni Soviet meskipun industri, bukan karena, pertanian kolektif tersebut.
USSR juga mengalami kelaparan besar pada tahun 1947 sebagai akibat dari kerusakan akibat perang dan kekeringan berat, namun ekonom Michael Ellman berpendapat bahwa hal itu bisa dicegah jika pemerintah tidak salah mengurus cadangan biji-bijian tersebut. kelaparan Biaya sebuah 1 diperkirakan 1,5 juta jiwa serta kerugian populasi sekunder disebabkan oleh menurunnya kesuburan.[58]
Ukraina kelaparan
Artikel utama: Holodomor
Kelaparan Holodomor kadang-kadang disebut sebagai Ukraina Genosida, menyiratkan hal itu direkayasa oleh pemerintah Soviet, khususnya menargetkan orang Ukraina untuk menghancurkan bangsa Ukraina sebagai faktor politik dan entitas sosial.[59] Sementara sejarawan tetap tidak setuju apakah kebijakan yang menyebabkan jatuh Holodomor bawah definisi hukum genosida, 26 negara telah secara resmi mengakui Holodomor seperti itu. Pada tanggal 28 November 2006, Parlemen Ukraina menyetujui tagihan, sesuai dengan yang era-Soviet terpaksa kelaparan adalah tindakan genosida terhadap orang-orang Ukraina.[60] Profesor Michael Ellman menyimpulkan bahwa Ukraina menjadi korban genosida di 1932-1933, menurut lebih definisi santai, yang disukai oleh beberapa ahli di bidang studi genosida. Dia menegaskan bahwa kebijakan Soviet sangat diperburuk kematian tol kelaparan (seperti penggunaan penyiksaan dan eksekusi untuk mengekstrak biji-bijian (lihat Hukum Spikelets), dengan 1,8 juta ton dapat diekspor selama puncak-kelaparan cukup untuk memberi makan 5 juta orang selama satu tahun, penggunaan kekuatan untuk mencegah kelaparan petani dari melarikan diri dari daerah yang terkena dampak paling parah, dan penolakan untuk mengimpor gandum atau kemanusiaan bantuan internasional aman untuk meringankan penderitaan) dan bahwa Stalin dimaksudkan untuk digunakan sebagai kelaparan dan efisien berarti murah (sebagai lawan dari deportasi dan penembakan) untuk membunuh orang-orang yang dianggap "kontra-revolusioner," "pemalas," dan "pencuri," tapi tidak untuk memusnahkan kaum tani Ukraina secara keseluruhan. Ia juga mengklaim bahwa, sementara ini tidak Soviet genosida saja (misalnya The operasi Polandia NKVD), itu adalah yang terburuk dalam hal korban massa.[43]
Saat ini perkiraan jumlah korban dalam jangkauan Ukraina Uni Soviet kebanyakan dari 2,2 juta[61][62] sampai dengan 4 untuk 5 juta.[63][64][65]
Sebuah pengadilan Ukraina ditemukan Josef Stalin dan para pemimpin lainnya dari Uni Soviet bersalah karena genosida oleh "mengorganisir kelaparan massal di Ukraina pada 1932-1933" pada Januari 2010. Namun, pengadilan "turun proses pidana atas tersangka kematian itu".[66][67]
Industrialisasi
Para Perang Saudara Rusia dan komunisme perang memiliki efek buruk pada negara perekonomian. Produksi industri pada tahun 1922 adalah 13% dari tahun 1914. Sebuah pemulihan diikuti di bawah Kebijakan Ekonomi Baru, yang memungkinkan tingkat fleksibilitas pasar dalam konteks sosialisme. Under arah Stalin, ini diganti dengan sistem terpusat ditahbiskan "Tahun Rencana Lima" pada akhir tahun 1920. Ini menyerukan agar program yang sangat ambisius dari dipandu crash-negara industrialisasi dan kolektivisasi pertanian.
Dengan modal benih tersedia karena reaksi internasional untuk kebijakan Komunis, kecil perdagangan internasional, dan hampir tidak ada infrastruktur modern,'s pemerintah Stalin dibiayai industrialisasi baik dengan menahan konsumsi pada bagian warga Soviet biasa untuk memastikan modal yang pergi untuk kembali investasi ke dalam industri, dan kejam oleh ekstraksi kekayaan dari kulak.
Pada tahun 1933 pendapatan riil 'pekerja tenggelam sekitar sepersepuluh dari tingkat tahun 1926.[rujukan?] dan tahanan politik umum di kamp kerja dipaksa untuk melakukan kerja yang tidak dibayar, dan komunis dan Komsomol anggota sering "dimobilisasi" untuk berbagai proyek konstruksi. Uni Soviet digunakan ahli asing banyak, untuk merancang pabrik baru, mengawasi konstruksi, menginstruksikan pekerja dan meningkatkan proses manufaktur. Kontraktor luar negeri yang paling penting adalah Albert Kahn perusahaan yang dirancang dan dibangun 521 pabrik antara 1930 dan 1932. Sebagai aturan, pabrik disuplai dengan peralatan impor.
Terlepas dari kerusakan dini dan kegagalan, dua yang pertama-Rencana Lima Tahun dicapai industrialisasi yang pesat dari ekonomi basa rendah sangat. Meskipun umumnya sepakat bahwa Uni Soviet mencapai tingkat pertumbuhan ekonomi yang signifikan di bawah Stalin, laju pertumbuhan yang tepat adalah sengketa. Hal ini tidak diperdebatkan, bagaimanapun, bahwa keuntungan tersebut dicapai dengan biaya jutaan jiwa. Soviet resmi dinyatakan perkiraan tingkat pertumbuhan tahunan sebesar 13,9%, dan perkiraan Rusia Barat memberikan angka yang lebih rendah antara 5,8% dan bahkan 2,9%. Memang, salah satu perkiraan adalah bahwa pertumbuhan Soviet menjadi jauh lebih tinggi sementara setelah kematian Stalin.[68]
Menurut Robert Lewis Lima Tahun Rencana substansial membantu untuk memodernisasi ekonomi Soviet mundur sebelumnya. Produk baru dikembangkan, dan skala dan efisiensi produksi yang ada sangat meningkat. Beberapa inovasi tersebut berdasarkan perkembangan teknis adat, yang lain pada teknologi asing diimpor.[69] Meskipun biaya, upaya industrialisasi mengijinkan Uni Soviet untuk melawan, dan akhirnya menang, Perang Dunia II.
Ilmu pengetahuan
Artikel utama: Ilmu dan teknologi di Uni Soviet dan penelitian ditekan di Uni Soviet
Sains di Uni Soviet berada di bawah kontrol ideologis yang ketat oleh Stalin dan pemerintah, bersama dengan seni dan sastra. Ada kemajuan yang signifikan dalam "ideologis aman" domain, karena bebas pendidikan Soviet -sistem dan penelitian dibiayai negara. Namun, dalam beberapa kasus konsekuensi dari tekanan ideologi yang dramatis-yang penting contoh yang paling menjadi "borjuis pseudosciences" genetika dan sibernetika. Beberapa daerah fisika dikritik,[70][71] Namun, meskipun awalnya direncanakan,[72] sementara Stalin secara pribadi dan langsung memberikan kontribusi untuk belajar di Linguistik, karya prinsip yang merupakan esai kecil, "dan Bahasa Pertanyaan Marxisme."[73] Penelitian ilmiah adalah terhalang oleh kenyataan bahwa banyak ilmuwan dikirim ke kamp kerja paksa (termasuk Lev Landau, yang kemudian menjadi Hadiah Nobel pemenang, yang menghabiskan satu tahun di penjara di 1938-1939) atau dieksekusi (misalnya Lev Shubnikov, ditembak pada tahun 1937 ).
Pelayanan sosial
Artikel utama: demokrasi Soviet
Di bawah orang-orang pemerintah Soviet manfaat dari beberapa liberalisasi sosial. Gadis-gadis itu diberi sama, pendidikan yang memadai dan wanita memiliki hak yang sama dalam kerja,[12] memperbaiki kehidupan bagi perempuan dan keluarga. pembangunan Stalinis juga memberikan kontribusi untuk kemajuan dalam perawatan kesehatan, yang secara signifikan meningkatkan umur dan kualitas hidup warga Soviet khas.[12] Teman-kebijakan Stalin yang diberikan orang-orang Soviet akses universal untuk kesehatan dan pendidikan, efektif menciptakan generasi pertama bebas dari rasa takut dari tifus, kolera, dan malaria.[74] The kejadian penyakit ini turun untuk merekam angka yang rendah, meningkatkan rentang hidup dengan dekade.[74]
wanita Soviet di bawah Stalin adalah generasi pertama dari perempuan mampu melahirkan di rumah sakit keselamatan, dengan akses ke perawatan kehamilan.[74] Pendidikan juga merupakan contoh peningkatan standar hidup setelah pembangunan ekonomi. Generasi yang lahir pada pemerintahan Stalin adalah generasi dekat-universal melek pertama. Jutaan manfaat dari kampanye keaksaraan massa di tahun 1930, dan dari pekerja pelatihan skema.[75] Engineers dikirim ke luar negeri untuk mempelajari teknologi industri, dan ratusan insinyur asing dibawa ke Rusia pada kontrak.[74] Transportasi link ditingkatkan dan banyak yang baru kereta api dibangun. Pekerja yang melebihi kuota mereka, Stakhanovites, menerima banyak insentif untuk pekerjaan mereka;[75] mereka mampu untuk membeli barang yang diproduksi secara massal oleh Soviet ekonomi berkembang dengan cepat.
Peningkatan permintaan akibat industrialisasi dan penurunan tenaga kerja akibat Perang Dunia II dan represi menghasilkan ekspansi besar dalam kesempatan kerja bagi para korban, terutama bagi perempuan.[75]
Budaya
Artikel utama: Realisme Sosialis
Meskipun lahir di Georgia, Stalin menjadi seorang nasionalis Rusia dan dipromosikan secara signifikan sejarah Rusia, bahasa, dan pahlawan nasional Rusia, khususnya selama tahun 1930-an dan 1940-an. Dia memegang Rusia sebagai saudara tua dari minoritas non-Rusia.[76]
Selama ini pemerintahan Stalin yang resmi dan berumur panjang gaya Realisme Sosialis didirikan untuk lukisan, patung,, drama musik dan sastra. Sebelumnya modis "revolusioner" ekspresionisme, seni abstrak, dan avant-garde eksperimen adalah berkecil hati atau dikecam sebagai "formalisme".
Terkenal angka tersebut ditekan, dan banyak dianiaya, disiksa dan dieksekusi, baik "revolusioner" (di antara mereka Isaac Babel, Vsevolod Meyerhold, Anna Akhmatova, Nikolai Gumilev, Lev Gumilev) dan "non-konformis" (misalnya, Osip Mandelstam). Sejumlah kecil sisa-revolusioner Rusia pra selamat[klarifikasi diperlukan]. Tingkat pribadi keterlibatan's Stalin secara umum, dan dalam kasus tertentu, telah menjadi topik diskusi. novel favorit Stalin Firaun, berbagi kesamaan dengan Sergei Eisensteinfilm s ', Ivan the Terrible, diproduksi di bawah ini bimbingan Stalin.
Dalam arsitektur, seorang Stalinis Kekaisaran Style (pada dasarnya, diperbarui Neoclassicism pada skala yang sangat besar, dicontohkan oleh Seven Sisters Moskow) menggantikan konstruktivisme tahun 1920-an. Teman-pemerintahan Stalin memiliki efek mengganggu sebagian besar pada budaya adat di dalam Uni Soviet, meskipun politik Korenizatsiya dan dipaksa pengembangan yang mungkin bermanfaat bagi integrasi generasi kemudian budaya asli.
Agama
Artikel utama: Agama di Uni Soviet
Stalin mengikuti posisi diadopsi oleh Lenin bahwa agama adalah candu yang perlu dihilangkan dalam rangka membangun masyarakat komunis yang ideal. Untuk tujuan ini, pemerintahannya dipromosikan ateisme ateistik melalui pendidikan khusus di sekolah, sejumlah besar propaganda anti-agama, karya anti-lembaga publik (khususnya Masyarakat dari Godless), hukum diskriminatif, dan juga kampanye teror terhadap penganut agama. Oleh 1930-an telah menjadi berbahaya akan disampaikan kepada publik berkaitan dengan agama.[77]
peran Stalin pada nasib dari Gereja Ortodoks Rusia adalah kompleks. penganiayaan terus-menerus pada tahun 1930 mengakibatkan hampir punah-nya sebagai lembaga publik: pada tahun 1939, paroki aktif berjumlah ratusan rendah (turun dari 54.000 di 1917), banyak gereja sudah diratakan, dan puluhan ribu imam, biarawan dan biarawati dianiaya dan dibunuh. Lebih dari 100.000 ditembak selama pembersihan dari 1937-1938.[78] Selama Perang Dunia II, Gereja diizinkan kebangkitan sebagai organisasi patriotik, setelah NKVD telah merekrut yang baru metropolitan, yang pertama setelah revolusi, sebagai agen rahasia . Ribuan paroki diaktifkan kembali sampai putaran lebih lanjut dari penindasan di Khrushchev waktu. Gereja Ortodoks Rusia Sinode's Pengakuan pemerintah Soviet dan Stalin secara pribadi menyebabkan skisma dengan Gereja Ortodoks Rusia di luar Rusia.
Hanya beberapa hari sebelum kematian Stalin, sekte agama tertentu adalah dilarang dan dianiaya. Gereja, Banyak agama yang populer di daerah etnis dari Uni Soviet termasuk Katolik Roma Uniats, Baptis, Islam, Budha, Yudaisme, dll mengalami cobaan mirip dengan gereja-gereja Ortodoks di bagian lain: ribuan biarawan dianiaya, dan ratusan gereja , sinagoga, masjid, kuil, monumen suci, biara dan bangunan keagamaan lainnya diratakan.
Teoretisi
Artikel utama: Stalinisme
Stalin dan pendukungnya telah menyoroti gagasan bahwa sosialisme dapat dibangun dan dikonsolidasikan oleh negara sebagai berkembang seperti Rusia selama tahun 1920. Memang ini mungkin satu-satunya di mana ia bisa dibangun dalam lingkungan yang tidak bersahabat.[79] Pada tahun 1933, Stalin mengajukan teori kejengkelan dari perjuangan kelas seiring dengan perkembangan sosialisme, dengan alasan bahwa negara lebih jauh akan bergerak depan, bentuk yang lebih akut perjuangan akan digunakan oleh sisa-sisa ditakdirkan kelas pengeksploitasi dalam upaya putus asa terakhir mereka - dan bahwa, oleh karena itu, represi politik yang diperlukan.
Pada tahun 1936, Stalin mengumumkan bahwa masyarakat Uni Soviet terdiri dari dua kelas non-antagonis: pekerja dan kolkhoz tani. Ini berhubungan dengan dua bentuk yang berbeda dari milik atas alat-alat produksi yang ada di Uni Soviet: kekayaan negara (bagi pekerja) dan harta bersama (untuk kaum tani). Selain itu, Stalin membedakan strata intelektual. Konsep "non-antagonis kelas" sepenuhnya baru terhadap teori Leninis. Diantara's kontribusi Stalin untuk literatur teoritis Komunis "dialektis dan Materialisme Sejarah, "" Marxisme dan Pertanyaan Nasional "," Trotskisme atau Leninisme ", dan" Prinsip Leninisme. "
Menghitung jumlah korban
Para peneliti sebelum pembubaran 1991 Uni Soviet mencoba untuk menghitung jumlah orang yang tewas di bawah rezim Stalin yang dihasilkan estimasi waktu 3 sampai 60 juta.[80] Setelah Uni Soviet dibubarkan, bukti dari arsip Soviet juga menjadi tersedia, berisi catatan resmi eksekusi sekitar 800.000 tahanan di bawah Stalin untuk salah satu atau pidana kejahatan politik, sekitar 1,7 juta kematian di gulag dan beberapa 390.000 kematian selama kulak pemindahan paksa - total sekitar 3 juta resmi korban dalam mencatat kategori. untuk[81]
The arsip catatan resmi Soviet tidak mengandung angka yang komprehensif untuk beberapa kategori korban, seperti orang-orang dari etnis deportasi atau pemindahan penduduk Jerman pasca Perang Dunia II.[82] Pada 1948, menurut Nicolas Werth, angka kematian dari 600.000 orang dideportasi dari Kaukasus antara 1943 dan 1944 telah mencapai 25 persen.[83] pengecualian terkenal lainnya dari NKVD data pada kematian represi termasuk pembantaian Katyn, pembunuhan lain di daerah yang baru diduduki, dan penembakan massa dari Tentara Merah personil (desertir dan yang disebut desersi sehingga) pada tahun 1941. Soviet dieksekusi 158.000 tentara karena desersi selama perang,[84] dan "detasemen memblokir" dari ribuan NKVD ditembak lagi.[85] Selain itu, statistik resmi tentang kematian Gulag mengecualikan kematian tahanan terjadi tak lama setelah mereka dibebaskan tetapi yang dihasilkan dari perlakuan kasar di kamp-kamp.[86] Beberapa sejarawan juga percaya angka arsip resmi dari kategori yang direkam oleh pemerintah Soviet dapat diandalkan dan tidak lengkap.[87][88] Di samping kegagalan tentang rekaman yang komprehensif, sebagai salah satu contoh tambahan, Robert Gellately dan Simon Sebayang-Montefiore membantah banyak tersangka dipukuli dan disiksa sampai mati sementara di "tahanan investigasi" kemungkinan besar tidak telah dihitung di antara dieksekusi.[12][89]
Sejarawan kerja setelah Soviet Uni pembubaran tersebut telah memperkirakan korban total berkisar dari sekitar 4 juta untuk hampir 10 juta, tidak termasuk mereka yang meninggal dalam kelaparan.[90] Rusia penulis Vadim Erlikman, misalnya, membuat perkiraan sebagai berikut: eksekusi, 1,5 juta; gulag, 5 juta, deportasi, 1,7 juta dari 7,5 juta dideportasi, dan tawanan perang dan warga sipil Jerman, 1 juta - total sekitar 9 juta korban penindasan.[91]
Beberapa juga menyertakan kematian 6 sampai 8 juta orang dalam kelaparan 1932-1933 sebagai korban's penindasan Stalin. kategorisasi ini kontroversial Namun, sebagai sejarawan berbeda pendapat apakah bencana kelaparan merupakan bagian sengaja kampanye penindasan terhadap kulak dan lain-lain,[43][92][93] atau hanya sebuah konsekuensi yang tidak diinginkan dari perjuangan atas kolektivisasi paksa.[56][94][95]
Oleh karena itu, jika korban kelaparan dimasukkan, minimal sekitar 10 juta kematian-6 juta dari kelaparan dan 4 juta dari penyebab-lain dikaitkan dengan rezim,[96] dengan sejumlah sejarawan baru-baru ini menunjukkan total kemungkinan sekitar 20 juta , mengutip korban total yang lebih tinggi banyak dari eksekusi, gulag, deportasi dan penyebab lainnya.[97] Menambahkan 6-8.000.000 korban kelaparan dapat's perkiraan Erlikman di atas, misalnya, akan menghasilkan total antara 15 dan 17 juta korban. Peneliti Robert Conquest, sementara itu, telah merevisi perkiraan aslinya hingga 30 juta korban sampai 20 juta.[98] Dalam edisi terbaru tentang The Great Terror (2007), Penaklukan menyatakan bahwa sementara angka pastinya tidak akan pernah diketahui dengan lengkap kepastian, kampanye berbagai teror yang diluncurkan oleh pemerintah Soviet mengklaim tidak kurang dari 15 juta jiwa.[99] Lain-lain mempertahankan bahwa jumlah korban sebelumnya yang lebih tinggi perkiraan mereka sudah benar.[100][101]
World War II, 1939–1945
Main article: Joseph Stalin in World War II
Ribbentrop and Stalin at the signing of the Pact
Pact with Hitler
The frequent references in this article or section reduce readability.
Please improve the article by rearranging citations so they interrupt the text less frequently.
After a failed attempt to sign an anti-German military alliance with France and Britain[102][103][104] and talks with Germany regarding a potential political deal,[102][103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111] on 23 August 1939, the Soviet Union entered into a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany, negotiated by Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov and German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop.[112] Officially a non-aggression treaty only, an appended secret protocol, also reached on 23 August 1939, divided the whole of eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence.[113][114]
The eastern part of Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Finland and part of Romania were recognized as parts of the Soviet sphere of influence,[114] with Lithuania added in a second secret protocol in September 1939.[115] Stalin and Ribbentrop traded toasts on the night of the signing discussing past hostilities between the countries.[116]
Implementing the division of Eastern Europe and other invasions
On 1 September 1939, the German invasion of its agreed upon portion of Poland started World War II.[112] On 17 September the Red Army invaded eastern Poland and occupied the Polish territory assigned to it by the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, followed by co-ordination with German forces in Poland.[117][118] Eleven days later, the secret protocol of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was modified, allotting Germany a larger part of Poland, while ceding most of Lithuania to the Soviet Union.[119]
Planned and actual territorial changes in Eastern and Central Europe 1939–1940 (click to enlarge)
After Stalin declared that he was going to "solve the Baltic problem", by June 1940, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia were merged into the Soviet Union, after repressions and actions therein brought about the deaths of over 160,000 citizens of these states.[119][120][121][122] After facing stiff resistance in an invasion of Finland,[123] an interim peace was entered, granting the Soviet Union the eastern region of Karelia (10% of Finnish territory).[123]
After this campaign, Stalin took actions to bolster the Soviet military, modify training and improve propaganda efforts in the Soviet military.[124] In June 1940, Stalin directed the Soviet annexation of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina, proclaiming this formerly Romanian territory part of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic.[125] But in annexing northern Bukovina, Stalin had gone beyond the agreed limits of the secret protocol.[125]
Stalin and Molotov on the signing of the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact with the Empire of Japan, 1941
After the Tripartite Pact was signed by Axis Powers Germany, Japan and Italy, in October 1940, Stalin traded letters with Ribbentrop, with Stalin writing about entering an agreement regarding a "permanent basis" for their "mutual interests."[126] After a conference in Berlin between Hitler, Molotov and Ribbentrop, Germany presented the Molotov with a proposed written agreement for Axis entry.[125][127] On 25 November, Stalin responded with a proposed written agreement for Axis entry which was never answered by Germany.[128] Shortly thereafter, Hitler issued a secret directive on the eventual attempts to invade the Soviet Union.[128] In an effort to demonstrate peaceful intentions toward Germany, on 13 April 1941, Stalin oversaw the signing of a neutrality pact with Axis power Japan.[129]
Hitler breaks the pact
During the early morning of 22 June 1941, Hitler broke the pact by implementing Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of Soviet held territories and the Soviet Union that began the war on the Eastern Front.[130] Although Stalin had received warnings from spies and his generals,[131][132][133][134][135] he felt that Germany would not attack the Soviet Union until Germany had defeated Britain.[131] In the initial hours after the German attack commenced, Stalin hesitated, wanting to ensure that the German attack was sanctioned by Hitler, rather than the unauthorized action of a rogue general.[12]
Accounts by Nikita Khrushchev and Anastas Mikoyan claim that, after the invasion, Stalin retreated to his dacha in despair for several days and did not participate in leadership decisions.[136] However, some documentary evidence of orders given by Stalin contradicts these accounts, leading some historians to speculate that Khruschev's account is inaccurate.[137] By the end of 1941, the Soviet military had suffered 4.3 million casualties[138] and German forces had advanced 1,050 miles (1,690 kilometers).[139]
Soviets stop the Germans
While the Germans pressed forward, Stalin was confident of an eventual Allied victory over Germany. In September 1941, Stalin told British diplomats that he wanted two agreements: (1) a mutual assistance/aid pact and (2) a recognition that, after the war, the Soviet Union would gain the territories in countries that it had taken pursuant to its division of Eastern Europe with Hitler in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.[140] The British agreed to assistance but refused to agree upon the territorial gains, which Stalin accepted months later as the military situation deteriorated somewhat in mid-1942.[140] By December, Hitler's troops had advanced to within 20 miles of the Kremlin in Moscow.[141] On 5 December, the Soviets launched a counteroffensive, pushing German troops back 40–50 miles from Moscow, the Wehrmacht's first significant defeat of the war.[141]
In 1942, Hitler shifted his primary goal from an immediate victory in the East, to the more long-term goal of securing the southern Soviet Union to protect oil fields vital to a long-term German war effort.[142] While Red Army generals saw evidence that Hitler would shift efforts south, Stalin considered this to be a flanking campaign in efforts to take Moscow.[143] During the war, Time Magazine named Stalin Time Person of the Year twice[144] and he was also one of the nominees for Time Person of the Century title.
Soviet push to Germany
The Soviets repulsed the important German strategic southern campaign and, although 2.5 million Soviet casualties were suffered in that effort, it permitted the Soviets to take the offensive for most of the rest of the war on the Eastern Front.[145]
The Big Three: Stalin, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill at the Tehran Conference, November 1943.
Germany attempted an encirclement attack at Kursk, which was successfully repulsed by the Soviets.[146] Kursk marked the beginning of a period where Stalin became more willing to listen to the advice of his generals.[147] By the end of 1943, the Soviets occupied half of the territory taken by the Germans from 1941–1942.[147] Soviet military industrial output also had increased substantially from late 1941 to early 1943 after Stalin had moved factories well to the East of the front, safe from German invasion and air attack.[148]
In November 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in Tehran.[149] The parties later agreed that Britain and America would launch a cross-channel invasion of France in May 1944, along with a separate invasion of southern France.[150] Stalin insisted that, after the war, the Soviet Union should incorporate the portions of Poland it occupied pursuant to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Germany, which Churchill tabled.[151]
In 1944, the Soviet Union made significant advances across Eastern Europe toward Germany,[152] including Operation Bagration, a massive offensive in Belorussia against the German Army Group Centre.[153]
Final victory
By April 1945, Germany faced its last days with 1.9 million German soldiers in the East fighting 6.4 million Red Army soldiers while 1 million German soldiers in the West battled 4 million Western Allied soldiers.[154] While initial talk existed of a race to Berlin by the Allies, after Stalin successfully lobbied for Eastern Germany to fall within the Soviet "sphere of influence" at Yalta, no plans were made by the Western Allies to seize the city by a ground operation.[155][156]
On 30 April, Hitler and Eva Braun committed suicide, after which Soviet forces found their remains, which had been burned at Hitler's directive.[157] German forces surrendered a few days later. Despite the Soviets' possession of Hitler's remains, Stalin did not believe that his old nemesis was actually dead, a belief that remained for years after the war.[158][159]
Fending off the German invasion and pressing to victory in the East required a tremendous sacrifice by the Soviet Union.[160] Soviet military casualties totaled approximately 35 million (official figures 28.2 million) with approximately 14.7 million killed, missing or captured (official figures 11.285 million).[161] Although figures vary, the Soviet civilian death toll probably reached 20 million.[161] One of every four Soviet citizens was killed or wounded in that war.[162] Some 1,710 towns and 70,000 villages were destroyed.[163] Thereafter, Stalin was at times referred to as one of the most influential men in human history.[164][165]
Nobel Prize in Peace nominations
In 1945, he was mentioned by Halvdan Koht among seven candidates that were qualified for the Nobel Prize in Peace. However, he did not explicitly nominate any of them. The person actually nominated was Cordell Hull.[166]
In 1948, he was officially nominated for the Nobel Prize in Peace by Wladislav Rieger.[167]
Questionable tactics
Part of the 5 March 1940 memo from Lavrentiy Beria to Stalin proposing execution of Polish officers
After taking around 300,000 Polish prisoners in 1939 and early 1940,[168][169][169][170][171] 25,700 Polish POWs were executed on 5 March 1940, pursuant to a note from to Stalin from Lavrenty Beria, the members of the Soviet Politburo,[172][173] in what became known as the Katyn massacre.[174][172][175] While Stalin personally told a Polish general they'd "lost track" of the officers in Manchuria,[176][177][178][178] Polish railroad workers found the mass grave after the 1941 Nazi invasion.[179] The massacre became a source of political controversy,[180][181] with the Soviets eventually claiming that Germany committed the executions when the Soviet Union retook Poland in 1944.[172][182] The Soviets did not admit responsibility until 1990.[183]
Stalin introduced controversial military orders, such as Order No. 270, requiring superiors to shoot deserters on the spot[184] while their family members were subject to arrest.[185] Thereafter, Stalin also conducted a purge of several military commanders that were shot for "cowardice" without a trial.[185] Stalin issued Order No. 227, directing that commanders permitting retreat without permission to be subject to a military tribunal,[186] and soldiers guilty of disciplinary procedures to be forced into "penal battalions", which were sent to the most dangerous sections of the front lines.[186] From 1942 to 1945, 427,910 soldiers were assigned to penal battalions.[187] The order also directed "blocking detachments" to shoot fleeing panicked troops at the rear.[186]
In June 1941, weeks after the German invasion began, Stalin also directed employing a scorched earth policy of destroying the infrastructure and food supplies of areas before the Germans could seize them, and that partisans were to be set up in evacuated areas.[137] He also ordered the NKVD to murder around one hundred thousand political prisoners in areas where the Wermacht approached,[188] while others were deported east.[87][189]
After the capture of Berlin, Soviet troops reportedly raped from tens of thousands to two million women,[190] and 50,000 during and after the occupation of Budapest.[191][192] In former Axis countries, such as Germany, Romania and Hungary, Red Army officers generally viewed cities, villages and farms as being open to pillaging and looting.[193]
In the Soviet Occupation Zone of post-war Germany, the Soviets set up ten NKVD-run "special camps" subordinate to the gulag.[194] These "special camps" were former Stalags, prisons, or Nazi concentration camps such as Sachsenhausen (special camp number 7) and Buchenwald (special camp number 2).[195] According to German government estimates, "65,000 people died in those Soviet-run camps or in transportation to them."[196]
According to recent figures, of an estimated four million POWs taken by the Soviets, including Germans, Japanese, Hungarians, Romanians and others, some 580,000 never returned, presumably victims of privation or the Gulags.[197] Soviet POWs and forced laborers who survived German captivity were sent to special "transit" or "filtration" camps to determine which were potential traitors.[198]
Of the approximately 4 million to be repatriated 2,660,013 were civilians and 1,539,475 were former POWs.[198] Of the total, 2,427,906 were sent home and 801,152 were reconscripted into the armed forces.[198] 608,095 were enrolled in the work battalions of the defense ministry.[198] 272,867 were transferred to the authority of the NKVD for punishment, which meant a transfer to the Gulag system.[198][199][200] 89,468 remained in the transit camps as reception personnel until the repatriation process was finally wound up in the early 1950s.[198]
Allied conferences on post-war Europe
The Big Three: British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Stalin at the Yalta Conference, February 1945.
Stalin met in several conferences with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (and later Clement Attlee) and/or American President Franklin D. Roosevelt (and later Harry Truman) to plan military strategy and, later, to discuss Europe's postwar reorganization. Very early conferences, such as that with British diplomats in Moscow in 1941 and with Churchill and American diplomats in Moscow in 1942, focused mostly upon war planning and supply, though some preliminary postwar reorganization discussion also occurred. In 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in the Tehran Conference. In 1944, Stalin met with Churchill in the Moscow Conference. Beginning in late 1944, the Red Army occupied much of Eastern Europe during these conferences and the discussions shifted to a more intense focus on the reorganization of postwar Europe.
In February 1945, at the conference at Yalta, Stalin demanded a Soviet sphere of political influence in Eastern Europe.[201] Stalin eventually was convinced by Churchill and Roosevelt not to dismember Germany.[201] Stalin also stated that the Polish government-in-exile demands for self-rule were not negotiable, such that the Soviet Union would keep the territory of eastern Poland they had already taken by invasion with German consent in 1939, and wanted the pro-Soviet Polish government installed.[201] After resistance by Churchill and Roosevelt, Stalin promised a re-organization of the current Communist puppet government on a broader democratic basis in Poland.[201] He stated the new government's primary task would be to prepare elections.[202]
The parties at Yalta further agreed that the countries of liberated Europe and former Axis satellites would be allowed to "create democratic institutions of their own choice", pursuant to "the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live."[203] The parties also agreed to help those countries form interim governments "pledged to the earliest possible establishment through free elections" and "facilitate where necessary the holding of such elections."[203] After the re-organization of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland, the parties agreed that the new party shall "be pledged to the holding of free and unfettered elections as soon as possible on the basis of universal suffrage and secret ballot."[203] One month after Yalta, the Soviet NKVD arrested 16 Polish leaders wishing to participate in provisional government negotiations, for alleged "crimes" and "diversions", which drew protest from the West.[202] The fraudulent Polish elections, held in January 1947 resulted in Poland's official transformation to undemocratic communist state by 1949.
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, U.S. President Harry S. Truman and Premiere Joseph Stalin at the Potsdam Conference, July 1945.
At the Potsdam Conference from July to August 1945, though Germany had surrendered months earlier, instead of withdrawing Soviet forces from Eastern European countries, Stalin had not moved those forces. At the beginning of the conference, Stalin repeated previous promises to Churchill that he would refrain from a "Sovietization" of Eastern Europe.[204] Stalin pushed for reparations from Germany without regard to the base minimum supply for German citizens' survival, which worried Truman and Churchill who thought that Germany would become a financial burden for Western powers.[205]
In addition to reparations, Stalin pushed for "war booty", which would permit the Soviet Union to directly seize property from conquered nations without quantitative or qualitative limitation, and a clause was added permitting this to occur with some limitations.[205] By July 1945, Stalin's troops effectively controlled the Baltic States, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania, and refugees were fleeing out of these countries fearing a Communist take-over. The western allies, and especially Churchill, were suspicious of the motives of Stalin, who had already installed communist governments in the central European countries under his influence.
In these conferences, his first appearances on the world stage, Stalin proved to be a formidable negotiator. Anthony Eden, the British Foreign Secretary noted: "Marshal Stalin as a negotiator was the toughest proposition of all. Indeed, after something like thirty years' experience of international conferences of one kind and another, if I had to pick a team for going into a conference room, Stalin would be my first choice. Of course the man was ruthless and of course he knew his purpose. He never wasted a word. He never stormed, he was seldom even irritated."[206]
Post-war era, 1945–1953
The Iron Curtain and the Eastern Bloc
After Soviet forces remained in Eastern and Central European countries, with the beginnings of communist puppet regimes in those countries, Churchill referred to the region as being behind an "Iron Curtain" of control from Moscow.[207][208] The countries under Soviet control in Eastern and Central Europe were sometimes called the "Eastern bloc" or "Soviet Bloc".
The Eastern Bloc until 1989.
In Soviet-controlled East Germany, the major task of the ruling communist party in Germany was to channel Soviet orders down to both the administrative apparatus and the other bloc parties pretending that these were initiatives of its own,[209] with deviations potentially leading to reprimands, imprisonment, torture and even death.[209] Property and industry were nationalized.[209]
The German Democratic Republic was declared on 7 October 1949, with a new constitution which enshrined socialism and gave the Soviet-controlled Socialist Unity Party ("SED") control. In Berlin, after citizens strongly rejected communist candidates in an election, in June 1948, the Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin, the portion of Berlin not under Soviet control, cutting off all supply of food and other items. The blockade failed due to the unexpected massive aerial resupply campaign carried out by the Western powers known as the Berlin Airlift. In 1949, Stalin conceded defeat and ended the blockade.
While Stalin had promised at the Yalta Conference that free elections would be held in Poland,[203] after an election failure in "3 times YES" elections,[210] vote rigging was employed to win a majority in the carefully controlled poll.[211][212][213] Following the forged referendum, the Polish economy started to become nationalized.[214]
In Hungary, when the Soviets installed a communist government, Mátyás Rákosi, who described himself as "Stalin's best Hungarian disciple"[215] and "Stalin's best pupil",[216] took power. Rákosi employed "salami tactics", slicing up these enemies like pieces of salami,[217] to battle the initial postwar political majority ready to establish a democracy.[218] Rákosi, employed Stalinist political and economic programs, and was dubbed the "bald murderer" for establishing one of the harshest dictatorships in Europe.[218][219] Approximately 350,000 Hungarian officials and intellectuals were purged from 1948 to 1956.[218]
During World War II, in Bulgaria, the Red Army crossed the border and created the conditions for a communist coup d'état on the following night.[220] The Soviet military commander in Sofia assumed supreme authority, and the communists whom he instructed, including Kimon Georgiev, took full control of domestic politics.[220]
In 1949, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania founded the Comecon in accordance with Stalin's desire to enforce Soviet domination of the lesser states of Central Europe and to mollify some states that had expressed interest in the Marshall Plan,[221] and which were now, increasingly, cut off from their traditional markets and suppliers in Western Europe.[222] Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland had remained interested in Marshall aid despite the requirements for a convertible currency and market economies. In July 1947, Stalin ordered these communist-dominated governments to pull out of the Paris Conference on the European Recovery Programme. This has been described as "the moment of truth" in the post-World War II division of Europe.[222]
In Greece, Britain and the United States supported the anti-communists in the Greek Civil War and suspected the Soviets of supporting the Greek communists, although Stalin refrained from getting involved in Greece, dismissing the movement as premature. Albania remained an ally of the Soviet Union, but Yugoslavia broke with the USSR in 1948.
In Stalin's last year of life, one of his last major foreign policy initiatives was the 1952 Stalin Note for German reunification and Superpower disengagement from Central Europe, but Britain, France, and the United States viewed this with suspicion and rejected the offer.
Sino-Soviet Relations
Stalin and Mao Zedong on Chinese Postage stamp
In Asia, the Red Army had overrun Manchuria in the last month of the war and then also occupied Korea above the 38th parallel north. Mao Zedong's Communist Party of China, though receptive to minimal Soviet support, defeated the pro-Western and heavily American-assisted Chinese Nationalist Party in the Chinese Civil War.
There was friction between Stalin and Mao from the beginning. During World War II Stalin had supported the socialist dictator of China, Chiang Kai-Shek, as a bulwark against Japan and had turned a blind eye to Chiang's mass killings of communists. He generally put his alliance with Chiang against Japan ahead of helping his ideological allies in China in his priorities. Even after the war Stalin concluded a non-aggression pact between the USSR and Chiang's Kuomintang (KMT) regime in China and instructed Mao and the Chinese communists to cooperate with Chiang and the KMT after the war. Mao did not follow Stalin's instructions though and started a communist revolution against Chiang. Stalin did not believe Mao would be successful so he was less than enthusiastic in helping Mao. The USSR continued to maintain diplomatic relations with Chiang's KMT regime until 1949 when it became clear Mao would win.
Stalin did conclude a new friendship and alliance treaty with Mao after he defeated Chiang. But there was still a lot of tension between the two leaders and resentment by Mao for Stalin's less than enthusiastic help during the civil war in China.
The Communists controlled mainland China while the Nationalists held a rump state on the island of Taiwan. The Soviet Union soon after recognized Mao's People's Republic of China, which it regarded as a new ally. The People's Republic claimed Taiwan, though it had never held authority there.
Diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and China reached a high point with the signing of the 1950 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance. Both countries provided military support to a new friendly state in North Korea. After various Korean border conflicts, war broke out with U.S.-allied South Korea in 1950, starting the Korean War.
North Korea
Contrary to America's policy which restrained armament (limited equipment was provided for infantry and police forces) to South Korea, Stalin extensively armed Kim Il Sung's North Korean army and air forces with military equipment (to include T-34/85 tanks) and "advisors" far in excess of those required for defensive purposes) in order to facilitate Kim's (a former Soviet Officer) aim of conquering the rest of the Korean peninsula.
The North Korean Army struck in the pre-dawn hours of Sunday, 25 June 1950, crossing the 38th parallel behind a firestorm of artillery, beginning their invasion of South Korea.[223] During the Korean War, Soviet pilots flew Soviet aircraft from Chinese bases against United Nations aircraft defending South Korea. Post-Cold war research in Soviet Archives has revealed that the Korean War was begun by Kim Il-sung with the express permission of Stalin, though this is disputed by North Korea.[citation needed]
Israel
Stalin originally supported the creation of Israel in 1948. The USSR was one of the first nations to recognize the new country.[224] Golda Meir came to Moscow as the first Israeli Ambassador to the USSR that year. However, after providing war materiel for Israel through Czechoslovakia, he later changed his mind and came out against Israel.
Falsifiers of History
In 1948, Stalin personally edited and rewrote by hand sections of the cold war book Falsifiers of History.[225] Falsifiers was published in response to the documents made public in Nazi-Soviet Relations, 1939–1941: Documents from the Archives of The German Foreign Office,[226][227] which included the secret protocols of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and other secret German-Soviet relations documents.[226][228] Falsifiers originally appeared as a series of articles in Pravda in February 1948,[227] and was subsequently published in numerous language and distributed worldwide.[229]
The book did not attempt to directly counter or deal with the documents published in Nazi-Soviet Relations[230] and rather, focused upon Western culpability for the outbreak of war in 1939.[229] It argues that "Western powers" aided Nazi rearmament and aggression, including that American bankers and industrialists provided capital for the growth of German war industries, while deliberately encouraging Hitler to expand eastward.[226][229] It depicted the Soviet Union as striving to negotiate a collective security against Hitler, while being thwarted by double-dealing Anglo-French appeasers who, despite appearances, had no intention of a Soviet alliance and were secretly negotiating with Berlin.[229] It casts the Munich agreement, not just as Anglo-French short-sightedness or cowardice, but as a "secret" agreement that was a "a highly important phase in their policy aimed at goading the Hitlerite aggressors against the Soviet Union."[231] The book also included the claim that, during the Pact's operation, Stalin rejected Hitler's offer to share in a division of the world, without mentioning the Soviet offers to join the Axis.[232] Historical studies, official accounts, memoirs and textbooks published in the Soviet Union used that depiction of events until the Soviet Union's dissolution.[232]
Domestic Support
Domestically, Stalin was seen as a great wartime leader who had led the Soviets to victory against the Nazis. His early cooperation with Hitler was forgotten. That cooperation included helping the German Army violate the Treaty of Versailles limitations, with training in the Soviet Union, the notorious Molotov-von Ribbentrop treaty which partitioned Poland giving the Soviet Union what is now Belarus and granted the Soviet Union a free hand in Finland, Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia, and Soviet trade with Hitler to counteract the expected French and British trade blockades.
By the end of the 1940s, Russian patriotism increased due to successful propaganda efforts. For instance, some inventions and scientific discoveries were claimed by Soviet propaganda. Examples include the boiler, reclaimed by father and son Cherepanovs; the electric light, by Yablochkov and Lodygin; the radio, by Popov; and the airplane, by Mozhaysky. Stalin's internal repressive policies continued (including in newly acquired territories), but never reached the extremes of the 1930s, in part because the smarter party functionaries had learned caution.
"Doctors' plot"
Main article: Doctors' plot
The "Doctors' plot" was a plot outlined by Stalin and Soviet officials in 1952 and 1953 whereby several doctors (over half of whom were Jewish) allegedly attempted to kill Soviet officials.[233] The prevailing opinion of many scholars outside the Soviet Union is that Stalin intended to use the resulting doctors' trial to launch a massive party purge.[234] The plot is also viewed by many historians as an antisemitic provocation.[233] It followed on the heels of the 1952 show trials of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee[235] and the secret execution of thirteen members on Stalin's orders in the Night of the Murdered Poets.[236]
Thereafter, in a December Politburo session, Stalin announced that "Every Jewish nationalist is the agent of the American intelligence service. Jewish nationalists think that their nation was saved by the United States (there you can become rich, bourgeois, etc.). They think they're indebted to the Americans. Among doctors, there are many Jewish nationalists."[237] To mobilize the Soviet people for his campaign, Stalin ordered TASS and Pravda to issue stories along with Stalin's alleged uncovering of a "Doctors Plot" to assassinate top Soviet leaders,[238][239] including Stalin, in order to set the stage for show trials.[240]
The next month, Pravda published stories with text regarding the purported "Jewish bourgeois-nationalist" plotters.[241] Kruschev wrote that Stalin hinted him to incite anti-Semitism in the Ukraine, telling him that "the good workers at the factory should be given clubs so they can beat the hell out of those Jews."[242][243] Stalin also ordered falsely accused physicians to be tortured "to death".[244] Regarding the origins of the plot, people who knew Stalin, such as Kruschev, suggest that Stalin had long harbored negative sentiments toward Jews,[233][245][246] and anti-Semitic trends in the Kremlin's policies were further fueled by the exile of Leon Trotsky.[233][247] In 1946, Stalin allegedly said privately that "every Jew is a potential spy."[233][248] At the end of January 1953, Stalin's personal physician Miron Vovsi (cousin of Solomon Mikhoels, who was assassinated in 1948 at the orders of Stalin)[236] was arrested within the frame of the plot. Vovsi was released by Beria after Stalin's death in 1953, as was his son-in-law, the composer Mieczyslaw Weinberg.
Some historians have argued that Stalin was also planning to send millions of Jews to four large newly built labor camps in Western Russia[240][249] using a "Deportation Commission"[250][251][252] that would purportedly act to save Soviet Jews from an engraged Soviet population after the Doctors Plot trials.[250][253][254] Others argue that any charge of an alleged mass deportation lacks specific documentary evidence.[239] Regardless of whether a plot to deport Jews was planned, in his "Secret Speech" in 1956, Soviet Premier Nikita Kruschev stated that the Doctors Plot was "fabricated ... set up by Stalin", that Stalin told the judge to beat confessions from the defendants[255] and had told Politburo members "You are blind like young kittens. What will happen without me? The country will perish because you do not know how to recognize enemies."[255]
Death and aftermath
On the early morning hours of 1 March 1953, after an all-night dinner and a movie[256] Stalin arrived at his Kuntsevo residence some 15 km west of Moscow centre with interior minister Lavrentiy Beria and future premiers Georgy Malenkov, Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev where he retired to his bedroom to sleep. At dawn, Stalin did not emerge from his room, having probably suffered a stroke that paralyzed the right side of his body.
Stalin's Grave by the Kremlin Wall Necropolis
Although his guards thought that it was odd for him not to rise at his usual time, they were under strict orders not to disturb him and left him alone the entire day. At around 10 p.m. he was discovered by Peter Lozgachev, the Deputy Commandant of Kuntsevo, who entered his bedroom to check up on him and recalled a horrifying scene of Stalin lying on the floor of his room wearing pyjama bottoms and an undershirt with his clothes soaked in stale urine. A frightened Lozgachev asked Stalin what happened to him, but all he could get out of the Generalissimo was unintelligible responses that sounded like "Dzhh." Lozgachez frantically called a few party officials asking them to send good doctors.[257] Lavrentiy Beria was informed and arrived a few hours afterwards, and the doctors only arrived in the early morning of 2 March in which they changed his bedclothes and tended to him. The bedridden Stalin died four days later, on 5 March 1953,[2] at the age of 74, and was embalmed on 9 March. Officially, the cause of death was listed as a cerebral hemorrhage. His body was preserved in Lenin's Mausoleum until 31 October 1961, when his body was removed from the Mausoleum and buried next to the Kremlin walls as part of the process of de-Stalinization.
It has been suggested that Stalin was assassinated. The ex-Communist exile Avtorkhanov argued this point as early as 1975. The political memoirs of Vyacheslav Molotov, published in 1993, claimed that Beria had boasted to Molotov that he poisoned Stalin: "I took him out."
Khrushchev wrote in his memoirs that Beria had, immediately after the stroke, gone about "spewing hatred against [Stalin] and mocking him", and then, when Stalin showed signs of consciousness, dropped to his knees and kissed his hand. When Stalin fell unconscious again, Beria immediately stood and spat.[citation needed]
Later analysis of death
In 2003, a joint group of Russian and American historians announced their view that Stalin ingested warfarin, a powerful rat poison that inhibits coagulation of the blood and which predisposes the victim to hemorrhagic stroke (cerebral hemorrhage). Since it is flavorless, warfarin is a plausible weapon of murder. The facts surrounding Stalin's death will probably never be known with certainty.[258]
His demise arrived at a convenient time for Lavrenty Beria and others, who feared being swept away in yet another purge. It is believed[who?] that Stalin felt Beria's power was too great and threatened his own. According to Molotov's memoirs, Beria claimed to have poisoned Stalin, saying, "I took him out." Whether Beria or anyone else was directly responsible for Stalin's death, it is true that the Politburo did not summon medical attention for Stalin for more than a day after he was found.[259]
Reaction by successors
Grutas Park is home to a monument of Stalin, originally set up in Vilnius.
Monument to Stalin stood in Gori, Georgia until 2010 when it was demolished and moved to the Museum of Soviet Occupation.
The harshness with which Soviet affairs were conducted during Stalin's rule was subsequently repudiated by his successors in the Communist Party leadership, most notably by Nikita Khrushchev's repudiation of Stalinism in February 1956. In his "Secret Speech", On the Personality Cult and its Consequences, delivered to a closed session of the 20th Party Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Khrushchev denounced Stalin for his cult of personality, and his regime for "violation of Leninist norms of legality".
Views on Stalin in Russian Federation
Results of a controversial poll taken in 2006 stated that over thirty-five percent of Russians would vote for Stalin if he were still alive.[260][261] Fewer than a third of all Russians regarded Stalin as a murderous tyrant;[262] however, a Russian court in 2009, ruling on a suit by Stalin's grandson, Yevgeny Dzhugashvili, against the newspaper, Novaya Gazeta, ruled that referring to Stalin as a "bloodthirsty cannibal" was not libel.[263] In a July 2007 poll 54 percent of the Russian youth agreed that Stalin did more good than bad while 46 percent (of them) disagreed that Stalin was a cruel tyrant. Half of the respondents, aged from 16 to 19, agreed Stalin was a wise leader.[264]
In December 2008 Stalin was voted third in the nationwide television project Name of Russia (narrowly behind 13th century prince Alexander Nevsky and Pyotr Stolypin, one of Nicholas II's prime ministers), leading to accusations from Communist Party of the Russian Federation that the poll had been rigged in order to prevent him or Lenin being given first place.[265]
On 3 July 2009, Russia's delegates walked out of an Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe session to demonstrate their objections to a resolution for a remembrance day for the victims of both Nazism and Stalinism.[266] Only eight out of 385 assembly members voted against the resolution.[266]
In a Kremlin video blog posted on October 29, 2009, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev denounced the efforts of people seeking to rehabilitate Stalin's image. He said the mass extermination during the Stalin era cannot be justified.[267]
Personal life
Origin of name, nicknames and pseudonyms
Stalin's original Georgian is transliterated as "Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili" (Georgian: იოსებ ბესრიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი). The Russian transliteration of his name (Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили) is in turn transliterated to English as "Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili". Like other Bolsheviks, he became commonly known by one of his revolutionary noms de guerre, of which "Stalin" was only the last. Prior nicknames included "Koba", "Soselo", "Ivanov" and many others.[268]
Stalin is believed to have started using the name "K. Stalin" sometime in 1912 as a pen name.
During Stalin's reign his nicknames included:
"Uncle Joe", by western media, during and after the World War II.[269][270]
"Kremlin Highlander" (Russian: кремлевский горец), in reference his Caucasus Mountains origin, notably by Osip Mandelstam in his Stalin Epigram.
"Little Father of the Peoples" or "Papa Stalin". A common nickname in the USSR during his time in power, as he was portrayed as the paternal figure of the Revolution.[271][272][273][274]
Appearance
While photographs and portraits portray Stalin as physically massive and majestic (he had several painters shot who did not depict him "right"),[275] he was only five feet four inches high (160 cm).[275] (President Harry S. Truman, who stood only five feet nine inches himself, described Stalin as "a little squirt".[276]) His mustached face was fleshy and pock-marked, and his black hair later turned grey and thinned out. After a carriage accident in his youth, his left arm was shortened and stiffened at the elbow, while his right hand was thinner than his left and frequently hidden.[275] His dental health also deteriorated as he got older—when he died, he only had three of his own teeth remaining.[277] He could be charming and polite, mainly towards visiting statesmen,[275] but was generally coarse, rude, and abusive.[278] In movies, Stalin was often played by Mikheil Gelovani and, less frequently, by Aleksei Dikiy.
Marriages and family
Ekaterina "Kato" Svanidze, Stalin's first wife
Stalin and Nadezhda Alliluyeva
Stalin's son Yakov, whom he had with his first wife Ekaterina Svanidze, shot himself because of Stalin's harshness toward him, but survived. After this, Stalin said "He can't even shoot straight".[279] Yakov served in the Red Army during World War II and was captured by the Germans. They offered to exchange him for Field Marshal Friedrich Paulus, who had surrendered after Stalingrad, but Stalin turned the offer down, stating "You have in your hands not only my son Yakov but millions of my sons. Either you free them all or my son will share their fate."[280] Afterwards, Yakov is said to have committed suicide, running into an electric fence in Sachsenhausen concentration camp, where he was being held.[281] Yakov had a son Yevgeny, who is recently noted for defending his grandfather's legacy in Russian courts.
Stalin had a son, Vasiliy, and a daughter, Svetlana, with his second wife Nadezhda Alliluyeva. She died in 1932, officially of illness. She may have committed suicide by shooting herself after a quarrel with Stalin, leaving a suicide note which according to their daughter was "partly personal, partly political".[282] According to A&E Biography, there is also a belief among some Russians that Stalin himself murdered his wife after the quarrel, which apparently took place at a dinner in which Stalin tauntingly flicked cigarettes across the table at her. Historians also claim her death ultimately "severed his link from reality."[283]
Vasiliy rose through the ranks of the Soviet air force, officially dying of alcoholism in 1962; however, this is still in question. He distinguished himself in World War II as a capable airman. Svetlana emigrated to the United States in 1967. Stalin may have married a third wife, Rosa Kaganovich, the sister of Lazar Kaganovich.[284] In March 2001 Russian Independent Television NTV interviewed a previously unknown grandson living in Novokuznetsk, Yuri Davydov, who stated that his father had told him of his lineage, but, was told to keep quiet because of the campaign against Stalin's cult of personality.
Beside his suite in the Kremlin, Stalin had numerous domiciles. In 1919 he started with a country house near Usovo, he added dachas at Zuvalova and Kuntsevo (Blizhny dacha built by Miron Merzhanov). Before WWII he added the Lipki estate and Semyonovskaya, and had at least four dachas in the south by 1937, including one near Sochi. A luxury villa near Gagri was given to him by Beria. In Abkhazia he maintained a mountain retreat. After the war he added dachas at Novy Alon, near Sukhumi, in the Valdai Hills, and at Lake Mitsa. Another estate was near Zelyony Myss on the Black Sea. All these dachas, estates, and palaces were staffed, well furnished and equipped, kept safe by security forces, and were mainly used privately, rarely for diplomatic purposes.[285] Between places Stalin would travel by car or train, never by air; he flew only once when attending the 1943 Tehran conference.
Habits
Stalin enjoyed heavy drinking, but could keep it under control.[286] He would also often force those around him to join in the drinking.[286] Stalin preferred Georgian wine over Russian vodka, but usually ate traditional Russian food.[286]
Khrushchev reports in his memoirs that Stalin was fond of American cowboy movies.[287] He would often sleep until evening in his dacha, and after waking up summon high-ranking Soviet politicians to watch foreign movies with him in the Kremlin movie theater.[287] The movies, being in foreign languages, were given a running translation.[287] After the movie had ended, Stalin often invited the audience for dinner, even though the clock was usually past midnight.[287]
Religious beliefs and policies
Stalin had a complex relationship with religious institutions in the Soviet Union.[288] One story reports that while he studied at a seminary, he became a closet atheist.[289] However, this story fails on several obvious accounts, including Stalin's remaining religious, even pious, for some years longer.[290] One account states that Stalin's reversal on bans against the church during World War II followed a sign that he believed he received from heaven.[291]
Historian Edvard Radzinsky used recently discovered secret archives and noted a story that changed Stalin's attitude toward religion.[291] The story in which Ilya, Metropolitan of the Lebanon Mountains, claimed to receive a sign from heaven that "The churches and monasteries must be reopened throughout the country. Priests must be brought back from imprisonment, Leningrad must not be surrendered, but the sacred icon of Our Lady of Kazan should be carried around the city boundary, taken on to Moscow, where a service should be held, and thence to Stalingrad Tsaritsyn."[291]
Shortly thereafter, Stalin's attitude changed and "Whatever the reason, after his mysterious retreat, he began making his peace with God. Something happened which no historian has yet written about. On his orders many priests were brought back to the camps. In Leningrad, besieged by the Germans and gradually dying of hunger, the inhabitants were astounded, and uplifted, to see wonder-working icon Our Lady of Kazan brought out into the streets and borne in procession."[291] Radzinsky asked, "Had he seen the light? Had fear made him run to his Father? Had the Marxist God-Man simply decided to exploit belief in God? Or was it all of these things at once?."[291]
During the Second World War Stalin reopened the Churches. One reason could have been to motivate the majority of the population who had Christian beliefs. The reasoning behind this is that by changing the official policy of the party and the state towards religion, the Church and its clergymen could be to his disposal in mobilizing the war effort. On 4 September 1943, Stalin invited Metropolitan Sergius, Metropolitan Alexy and Metropolitan Nikolay to the Kremlin and proposed to reestablish the Moscow Patriarchate, which had been suspended since 1925, and elect the Patriarch. On 8 September 1943, Metropolitan Sergius was elected Patriarch.
Another reason that may have motivated this greater tolerance after the war, was the great failure of the persecutions of the 1920s and 1930s to actually achieve the intended result of eliminating religion.
The CPSU Central Committee continued to promote atheism and the elimination of religion during the remainder of Stalin's lifetime after the 1943 concordat.[292] Stalin's greater tolerance for religion after 1943 was limited, and persecutions resumed at the end of the war, although on a lesser scale than had been existent in the 1930s. For these reasons it is unlikely that Stalin had changed his atheistic rejection of religion during this last portion of his lifetime.
Stalin meluncurkan ekonomi komando, menggantikan Kebijakan Ekonomi Baru tahun 1920-an dengan Rencana Lima Tahun dan meluncurkan periode cepat industrialisasi dan kolektivisasi ekonomi. Pergolakan di sektor pertanian terganggu produksi pangan, mengakibatkan kelaparan luas, termasuk bencana kelaparan Soviet 1932-1933 (dikenal di Ukraina sebagai Holodomor).[3]
Selama akhir 1930-an, Stalin meluncurkan Pembersihan Besar (juga dikenal sebagai "Teror Besar"), sebuah kampanye untuk membersihkan Partai Komunis dari orang yang dituduh sabotase, terorisme, atau pengkhianatan, ia diperluas ke militer lain sektor dan Soviet masyarakat. Dalam prakteknya, pembersihan yang sembarangan. Target sering dieksekusi, dipenjara di kamp kerja paksa Gulag atau diasingkan. Pada tahun-tahun yang diikuti, jutaan anggota etnis minoritas juga dideportasi.[4][5]
Pada tahun 1939, setelah gagal upaya untuk membangun sistem keamanan kolektif di Eropa,[rujukan?][klarifikasi diperlukan] Stalin menandatangani pakta non-agresi dengan Nazi Jerman, diikuti oleh invasi Soviet Polandia, Finlandia, yang Baltik, Bessarabia dan utara Bukovina. Setelah Jerman melanggar perjanjian itu pada tahun 1941, Uni Soviet bergabung dengan Sekutu untuk memainkan peran utama dalam kekalahan Axis, pada biaya angka kematian terbesar untuk setiap negara dalam perang (sebagian besar disebabkan oleh kematian massal warga sipil di wilayah diduduki oleh Nazi). Setelah perang, Stalin diinstal pemerintah komunis tunduk di kebanyakan negara di Eropa Timur, membentuk blok Timur, di balik apa yang disebut sebagai "Tirai Besi"dari pemerintahan Soviet selama Perang Dingin.
Stalin dipupuk suatu kultus kepribadian sekitar dirinya, namun setelah kematiannya, penerusnya, Nikita Khrushchev, mencela warisannya dan melaju proses de-Stalinisasi Uni Soviet.[6]
Isi [hide]
1 Awal kehidupan
2 Revolusi, Perang Sipil dan Perang Polandia-Soviet
2.1 Peran selama Revolusi Rusia 1917
2.2 Peran dalam Perang Saudara Rusia, 1917-1919
2.3 Peran dalam Perang Soviet-Polandia, 1919-1921
3 Naik ke kekuasaan
4 Perubahan masyarakat Soviet, 1927-1939
4.1 Soviet memperkuat layanan rahasia dan intelijen
4.2 Cult kepribadian
4.3 pembersihan dan deportasi
4.4 Kolektivisasi
4.5 kelaparan
4.6 Industrialisasi
4.7 Ilmu
4.8 Jasa pelayanan sosial
4.9 Budaya
4.10 Agama
4.11 teori
5 Menghitung jumlah korban
6 Perang Dunia II, 1939-1945
6.1 Pakta dengan Hitler
6.2 Menerapkan pembagian Eropa Timur dan invasi lainnya
6.3 Hitler istirahat pakta
6.4 Soviet menghentikan Jerman
6,5 Soviet push ke Jerman
6.6 Final kemenangan
6.7 Nobel Perdamaian nominasi
6.8 dipertanyakan taktik
6.9 Sekutu konferensi pada pasca-perang Eropa
7 Pasca-perang era, 1945-1953
7.1 Para Tirai Besi dan Blok Timur
7.2 Hubungan Sino-Soviet
7.3 Korea Utara
7.4 Israel
7,5 Falsifiers Sejarah
7.6 Domestik Dukungan
7.7 "Dokter 'plot"
8 Kematian dan sesudahnya
8.1 Kemudian analisis kematian
8.2 Reaksi oleh para penerusnya
8.3 Pandangan tentang Stalin di Federasi Rusia
9 Kehidupan pribadi
9.1 Asal nama, julukan dan samaran
9.2 Penampilan
9.3 Perkawinan dan keluarga
9.4 Kebiasaan
9.5 Agama keyakinan dan kebijakan
10 Hipotesis, rumor dan kesalahpahaman tentang Stalin
11 Pekerjaan
12 Lihat juga
13 Referensi
13.1 Catatan
13.2 Bibliografi
13.3 Bacaan lebih lanjut
14 Pranala luar
Kehidupan awal
Artikel utama: Awal kehidupan Joseph Stalin
Young Stalin, sekitar tahun 1894, usia 16
Stalin lahir Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili (Georgia: იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი) pada tanggal 18 Desember 1878[2] ke tukang sepatu di kota Gori, Georgia. Pada usia tujuh tahun, ia dikontrak cacar, yang permanen bekas luka wajahnya. Pada pukul sepuluh, ia mulai bersekolah gereja dimana anak-anak Georgia terpaksa berbahasa Rusia. Pada usia dua belas tahun, kecelakaan kereta yang ditarik kuda tinggal dua lengan kirinya rusak secara permanen. Pada enam belas, ia menerima beasiswa ke Ortodoks Georgia seminari, di mana ia memberontak melawan imperialis dan ketertiban agama. Meskipun ia tampil baik di sana, ia dikeluarkan pada tahun 1899 setelah absen ujian akhir. seminari's catatan menyarankan ia tidak mampu untuk membayar biaya pendidikan itu.[7]
Kartu informasi mengenai "IV Stalin", dari file-file dari polisi rahasia Tsar di Saint Petersburg, 1911[8]
Tak lama setelah meninggalkan seminari itu, Stalin menemukan tulisan-tulisan Vladimir Lenin dan memutuskan untuk menjadi seorang revolusioner Marxis, Lenin akhirnya bergabung dengan Bolshevik pada tahun 1903. Setelah ditandai dengan Okhranka (polisi rahasia Tsar) untuk aktivitasnya, ia menjadi full-time revolusioner dan penjahat. Ia menjadi salah satu Bolshevikkoperasi kepala 'di Kaukasus, pengorganisasian paramiliter, menghasut pemogokan, menyebarkan propaganda dan meningkatkan uang melalui perampokan bank, tebusan penculikan dan pemerasan.
Pada musim panas tahun 1906, Stalin menikah Ekaterina Svanidze, yang kemudian melahirkan anak pertama Stalin, Yakov. Stalin sementara mengundurkan diri dari partai atas larangan perampokan bank, mendalangi serangan besar di pengiriman bank yang mengakibatkan kematian 40 orang[9] dan kemudian melarikan diri ke Baku, di mana Ekaterina meninggal karena tifus. Di Baku, Stalin terorganisir Muslim Azerbaijan dan Persia dalam kegiatan partisan, termasuk pembunuhan banyak "Ratusan Hitam"pendukung sayap kanan Tsar, dan melakukan raket perlindungan, tebusan penculikan, pemalsuan operasi dan perampokan.
Stalin ditangkap dan dikirim ke Siberia tujuh kali, tetapi melarikan diri sebagian besar orang buangan. Setelah dibebaskan dari satu pengasingan tersebut, pada bulan April 1912 di Saint Petersburg, Stalin menciptakan koran Pravda dari koran partai yang ada. Dia akhirnya mengadopsi nama "Stalin", dari kata Rusia untuk baja, yang digunakan sebagai alias dan nama pena dalam menerbitkan karya-karyanya.
Selama pengasingan terakhirnya, Stalin diwajibkan oleh tentara Rusia untuk bertarung di Perang Dunia I, tetapi dianggap tidak layak untuk pelayanan karena lengan kirinya rusak.[10]
Revolusi, Perang Saudara, dan Perang Polandia-Soviet
Artikel utama: Joseph Stalin dalam Revolusi Rusia, Perang Saudara Rusia, dan Perang Polandia-Soviet
Peran selama Revolusi Rusia 1917
Setelah kembali ke Saint Petersburg dari pengasingan, Stalin terguling Vyacheslav Molotov dan Alexander Shlyapnikov sebagai editor Pravda. Ia kemudian mengambil posisi mendukung mendukung Alexander Kerensky's pemerintah sementara. Namun, setelah Lenin menang di Partai 1917 konferensi April, Stalin dan Pravda didukung menggulingkan pemerintah sementara. Pada konferensi ini, Stalin terpilih untuk Komite Sentral Bolshevik. Setelah Lenin berpartisipasi dalam sebuah revolusi berusaha, Stalin membantu Lenin menghindari penangkapan dan, untuk menghindari pertumpahan darah, memerintahkan Bolshevik terkepung untuk menyerah.[8]
Dia menyelundupkan Lenin ke Finlandia dan diasumsikan kepemimpinan Bolshevik.[8] Setelah Bolshevik dipenjara dibebaskan untuk membantu mempertahankan Saint Petersburg, pada bulan Oktober 1917, Komite Sentral Bolshevik memberikan suara mendukung sebuah pemberontakan.[8] Pada tanggal 7 November, dari yang Smolny Institute, Stalin, Lenin dan sisanya dari Komite Sentral terkoordinasi kudeta terhadap pemerintah Kerensky-yang disebut Revolusi Oktober. Kerensky meninggalkan modal untuk rally pasukan Imperial di depan Jerman. 8 November, Istana Musim Dingin telah menyerbu dan Kerensky Kabinet telah ditangkap.
Peran dalam Perang Saudara Rusia, 1917-1919
Joseph Stalin, Vladimir Lenin, dan Mikhail Kalinin pertemuan di tahun 1919. Ketiga dari mereka "Bolshevik Lama"-anggota Bolshevik partai sebelum Revolusi Rusia tahun 1917.
Setelah merebut Petrograd, Stalin diangkat Rakyat Commissar untuk 'Urusan kebangsaan.[11] Setelah itu, perang saudara pecah di Rusia, pitting Lenin Red Army terhadap Tentara Putih, sebuah aliansi longgar kekuatan anti-Bolshevik. Lenin membentuk lima anggota Politbiro yang termasuk Stalin dan Trotsky. Pada bulan Mei 1918, Lenin Stalin dikirim ke kota Tsaritsyn. Melalui sekutu barunya, Kliment Voroshilov dan Semyon Budyonny, Stalin dikenakan pengaruhnya di militer.[11]
Stalin menantang banyak keputusan Trotsky, memerintahkan pembunuhan Tsar banyak mantan perwira di Tentara Merah dan kontra-revolusioner[11][12] dan desa-desa dibakar dalam rangka untuk mengintimidasi kaum tani menjadi tunduk dan mencegah serangan bandit pada pengiriman makanan.[11] Pada bulan Mei 1919, dalam rangka membendung desersi massa di bagian depan Barat, Stalin desertir dan murtad publik dijalankan sebagai pengkhianat.[11]
Peran dalam Perang Polandia-Soviet, 1919-1921
Setelah mereka Perang Saudara Rusia kemenangan, kaum Bolshevik bergerak untuk mendirikan sebuah lingkup pengaruh di Eropa Tengah, dimulai dengan apa yang menjadi Perang Polandia-Soviet. Sebagai komandan dari front selatan,[11] Stalin bertekad untuk mengambil-menguasai kota Polandia Lviv. Ini bertentangan dengan strategi umum yang ditetapkan oleh Lenin dan Trotsky, yang difokuskan pada penangkapan Warsawa utara lebih lanjut.
Trotskys 'pasukan terlibat dengan orang-orang dari komandan Polandia Władysław Sikorski pada Pertempuran Warsawa, tetapi Stalin menolak untuk mengarahkan pasukannya dari Lviv untuk membantu.[11] Akibatnya, pertempuran untuk kedua Lviv dan Warsawa hilang, yang Stalin dipersalahkan . Stalin kembali ke Moskow pada Agustus 1920, di mana ia membela dirinya sendiri dan mengundurkan diri komisi militer.[11] Pada Kesembilan Konferensi Partai pada tanggal 22 September, Trotsky secara terbuka mengkritik's perilaku Stalin.[11]
Kemudian karirnya, Stalin adalah untuk mengkompensasi bencana 1920.[13] Ia akan menjamin kematian Trotsky, Lviv aman dalam pakta Nazi-Soviet, melaksanakan veteran Polandia -Soviet Perang Polandia dalam pembantaian Katyn; mendirikan dengan pengambilalihan Soviet di Eropa Timur, dan di Yalta, permintaan yang Lviv akan diserahkan oleh Polandia ke Uni Soviet.[13][14]
Naik ke kekuasaan
Artikel utama: Rise of Joseph Stalin
Stalin memainkan peranan penting dalam rekayasa 1921 invasi Tentara Merah Georgia, berikut ini yang diadopsi khususnya garis keras, kebijakan sentralistis terhadap Soviet Georgia, yang termasuk Affair Georgia tahun 1922 dan represi lainnya.[15][16] Hal ini menciptakan sebuah celah dengan Lenin, yang percaya bahwa semua negara Soviet harus berdiri sama.
Lenin masih dianggap Stalin sebagai sekutu setia, dan ketika ia mendapat terperosok dalam percekcokan dengan Trotsky dan politisi lain, ia memutuskan untuk memberikan lebih banyak kekuatan Stalin. Dengan bantuan Kamenev, Lenin Stalin diangkat sebagai Sekretaris Jenderal pada tahun 1922.[11] Posting ini memungkinkan Stalin untuk menunjuk banyak sekutu untuk posisi pemerintah.
Lenin menderita stroke pada 1922, memaksa dia ke semi-pensiun di Gorki. Stalin sering mengunjunginya, bertindak sebagai perantara dengan dunia luar.[11] Pasangan ini bertengkar dan hubungan mereka memburuk.[11] Lenin didikte semakin meremehkan catatan tentang Stalin pada apa yang akan menjadi wasiat. Dia mengkritik sikap kasar's Stalin, ambisi yang berlebihan, kekuasaan dan politik, dan menyarankan bahwa Stalin harus dihapus dari posisi Sekretaris Jenderal.[11] Selama semi-Lenin pensiun itu, Stalin menjalin kemitraan dengan Kamenev dan Grigory Zinoviev terhadap Trotsky. Sekutu ini dicegah Lenin Perjanjian dari yang diturunkan kepada kedua belas Partai Kongres pada April 1923.[11]
Lenin meninggal karena serangan jantung pada tanggal 21 Januari 1924. Sekali lagi, Kamenev dan Zinoviev membantu untuk menjaga's Perjanjian Lenin dari go publik. Setelah itu,'s sengketa Stalin dengan Kamenev dan Zinoviev diintensifkan. Trotsky, Kamenev dan Zinoviev tumbuh semakin terisolasi, dan akhirnya dikeluarkan dari Komite Sentral dan kemudian dari Partai itu sendiri.[11] Kamenev dan Zinoviev kemudian diterima kembali, tapi Trotsky diasingkan dari Uni Soviet.
Stalin mendorong industrialisasi yang lebih cepat dan kontrol pusat ekonomi, melanggar Lenin Kebijakan Ekonomi Baru. Pada akhir 1927, kekurangan penting dalam persediaan gandum diminta Stalin untuk mendorong kolektivisasi pertanian dan ketertiban kejang dari menimbun gandum dari kulak petani.[11][12] Bukharin dan Premier Rykov menyerang kebijakan-kebijakan ini dan menganjurkan kembali ke NEP, tetapi sisa Politbiro sisi dengan Stalin dan dihapus Bukharin dari Politbiro pada bulan November 1929. Rykov dipecat pada tahun berikutnya, dan digantikan oleh Vyacheslav Molotov di's rekomendasi Stalin.
Pada bulan Desember 1934, yang populer Sergei Kirov dibunuh. Stalin menyalahkan's pembunuhan Kirov pada konspirasi besar penyabot dan Trotskyites. Dia melancarkan pembersihan besar-besaran terhadap musuh-musuh internal, menempatkan mereka pada dicurangi percobaan menunjukkan dan kemudian setelah mereka dieksekusi atau dipenjarakan di gulag di Siberia. Di antara korban adalah musuh-musuh lama, termasuk Bukharin, Rykov, Kamenev dan Zinoviev. Stalin membuat setia Nikolai Yezhov kepala polisi rahasia, NKVD, dan menyuruhnya membersihkan NKVD dari Bolshevik veteran. Dengan tidak ada lawan serius yang tersisa di kekuasaan, Stalin mengakhiri pembersihan pada tahun 1938. Yezhov diadakan untuk disalahkan atas ekses dari Teror Besar, dan diberhentikan dan kemudian dieksekusi.
Perubahan masyarakat Soviet, 1927-1939
Memperkuat layanan rahasia Soviet dan kecerdasan
Artikel utama: Kronologis lembaga polisi rahasia Soviet
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Stalin sangat meningkatkan cakupan dan kekuatan polisi rahasia negara dan badan-badan intelijen. Di bawah membimbing tangannya, pasukan intelijen Soviet mulai mendirikan jaringan intelijen di sebagian besar negara-negara utama dunia, termasuk Jerman (yang terkenal Rote Kappelle cincin mata-mata), Inggris, Perancis, Jepang, dan Amerika Serikat. Stalin tidak melihat perbedaan antara spionase, komunis tindakan propaganda politik, dan negara-kekerasan sanksi, dan ia mulai mengintegrasikan semua kegiatan dalam NKVD. Stalin memanfaatkan besar dari Komunis Internasional gerakan untuk menyusup agen dan untuk memastikan bahwa partai komunis asing tetap pro-Soviet dan pro-Stalin.
Salah satu contoh terbaik dari kemampuan Stalin untuk mengintegrasikan polisi rahasia dan spionase asing datang pada 1940, ketika ia memberikan persetujuan untuk polisi rahasia untuk memiliki Leon Trotsky dibunuh di Meksiko.[17]
Cult kepribadian
Stalin menciptakan sebuah kultus pribadi di Uni Soviet sekitar kedua dirinya dan Lenin. kultus Banyak kepribadian dalam sejarah telah sering diukur dan dibandingkan dengan Nya. Banyak kota-kota, desa dan kota diberi nama setelah pemimpin Uni Soviet (lihat Daftar tempat bernama setelah Stalin) dan Hadiah Stalin dan Stalin Peace Prize diberi nama untuk menghormatinya. Dia menerima gelar muluk-muluk (misalnya "dirigen Sains, "" Bapak Bangsa, "" Brilliant Genius Kemanusiaan, "" Great Arsitek komunisme, "" Gardener Kebahagiaan Manusia, "dan lain-lain), dan membantu menulis ulang sejarah Soviet untuk menyediakan dirinya yang signifikan peran yang lebih dalam revolusi. Pada saat yang sama, menurut Khrushchev, dia bersikeras bahwa dia akan dikenang "karakteristik kesantunan luar biasa yang benar-benar orang-orang hebat." Patung Stalin menggambarkan dia di ketinggian dan membangun mendekati Alexander III, sedangkan bukti foto menunjukkan dia adalah antara 5 ft 5 in dan 5 ft 6 in (165-168 cm).[18]
Trotsky mengkritik kultus kepribadian dibangun di sekitar Stalin. Ini mencapai tingkat baru selama Perang Dunia II, dengan nama Stalin dimasukkan dalam Soviet baru lagu kebangsaan. Stalin menjadi fokus sastra, puisi, musik, lukisan dan film, menunjukkan pengabdian menjilat, mengkredit Stalin dengan dewa-seperti kualitas hampir, dan menyarankan dia seorang diri memenangkan Perang Dunia Kedua. Hal ini bisa diperdebatkan seperti bagaimana Stalin banyak menikmati kultus sekitarnya. Para komunis Finlandia Tuominen catatan bersulang sarkastik diusulkan oleh Stalin pada Tahun Baru Partai pada tahun 1935 di mana ia berkata, "Kamerad inginkan! saya mengusulkan bersulang untuk hidup, kita patriark dan matahari, pembebas bangsa, arsitek [sosialisme ia terguncang off semua appellations diterapkan untuk dia di hari-hari] - Josef Stalin Vissarionovich, dan saya berharap ini adalah pidato pertama dan terakhir dibuat untuk jenius bahwa malam ini ".[19]
Dalam pidato tahun 1956, Nikita Khrushchev memberikan kecaman dari Teman-tindakan Stalin: "Ini adalah tidak diperbolehkan dan asing dengan semangat Marxisme-Leninisme untuk mengangkat satu orang, untuk mengubahnya menjadi superman yang memiliki karakteristik supernatural mirip dengan yang dari Tuhan."[6]
Pembersihan dan deportasi
Pembersihan
Artikel utama: Great Purge
Waktu: Beria's Januari 1940 surat kepada Stalin, meminta izin untuk mengeksekusi 346 "musuh Partai Komunis Uni Soviet dan dari pemerintah Soviet"yang melakukan" kontra-revolusioner, kanan Trotskyis merencanakan dan memata-matai kegiatan "
Tengah: Stalin tulisan tangan: "за" (dukungan).
Kanan: Politbiro's Keputusan ditandatangani oleh Sekretaris Stalin
Stalin, sebagai kepala Politbiro, listrik di dekat-mutlak konsolidasi tahun 1930-an dengan Pembersihan Besar partai, dibenarkan sebagai upaya untuk mengusir 'oportunis' dan '-revolusioner penyusup counter'.[20][21] Mereka sasaran membersihkan sering diusir dari partai, lebih parah namun tindakan berkisar dari pembuangan ke Gulag kamp kerja paksa, untuk eksekusi setelah uji coba yang diselenggarakan oleh troikas NKVD.[20][22][23]
Pada 1930, Stalin tampaknya menjadi semakin khawatir tentang semakin populernya Sergei Kirov. Pada 1934 Partai Kongres dimana memilih Komite Sentral baru diadakan, Kirov menerima hanya tiga suara negatif, yang paling kecil dari setiap calon, sedangkan Stalin menerima 1.108 suara negatif.[24] Setelah pembunuhan Kirov, yang mungkin telah diatur oleh Stalin, Stalin menciptakan skema rinci untuk melibatkan pemimpin oposisi dalam pembunuhan, termasuk Trotsky, Kamenev dan Zinoviev.[25] The penyidikan dan pengadilan diperluas.[26] Stalin mengesahkan undang-undang baru tentang "organisasi teroris dan tindakan teroris", yang itu harus diselidiki untuk tidak lebih dari sepuluh hari, tanpa penuntutan, pengacara pembela atau banding, diikuti dengan kalimat yang dijalankan "dengan cepat."[27]
Setelah itu, beberapa percobaan yang dikenal sebagai Moskow Ujian diadakan, tetapi prosedur direplikasi di seluruh negeri. Pasal 58 dari kode hukum, daftar dilarang kegiatan anti-Soviet sebagai kejahatan kontra diterapkan dengan cara yang luas.[28] The dalih flimsiest sering cukup untuk seseorang merek sebuah "musuh rakyat", memulai siklus penganiayaan publik dan pelecehan, seringkali melanjutkan ke interogasi, penyiksaan dan deportasi, jika tidak mati. The troika kata Rusia memperoleh arti baru: sebuah disederhanakan, sidang cepat oleh sebuah komite tiga subordinasi untuk NKVD -troika NKVDdengan hukuman dilakukan dalam waktu 24 jam. -[27]
Nikolai Yezhov, pemuda berjalan dengan Stalin di foto atas dari tahun 1930-an, ditembak pada tahun 1940. Setelah kematiannya, Yezhov keluar diedit dari foto dengan sensor Soviet.[29] retouching tersebut adalah kejadian umum selama ini pemerintahan Stalin.
pemimpin militer Banyak yang dihukum karena pengkhianatan, dan skala besar pembersihan Red Army perwira diikuti.[30] Represi peringkat revolusioner banyak sebelumnya tinggi sehingga dan anggota partai menyebabkan Leon Trotsky untuk mengklaim bahwa "sungai darah" dipisahkan rezim Stalin dari Lenin.[31] Pada bulan Agustus 1940, Trotsky dibunuh di Meksiko, di mana ia telah tinggal di pengasingan sejak Januari 1937, ini menghilangkan terakhir itu lawan Stalin antara kepemimpinan Partai mantan.[32] hanya tiga "Old Bolshevik"(Lenin Politbiro) yang tersisa adalah Stalin, Mikhail Kalinin, dan Ketua Sovnarkom Vyacheslav Molotov.
operasi Massa dari NKVD juga ditargetkan "kontingen nasional" (etnis asing) seperti Polandia, suku Jerman, Korea, dll Sebanyak 350.000 (144.000 dari mereka Polandia) ditangkap dan 247.157 (110.000 Polandia) dieksekusi.[12] Banyak orang Amerika yang berimigrasi ke Uni Soviet selama terburuk Depresi Besar itu dijalankan; lainnya dikirim ke kamp-kamp penjara atau gulag.[33] Bersamaan dengan pembersihan, upaya dilakukan untuk menulis ulang sejarah dalam buku teks dan bahan propaganda Soviet lainnya . orang terkenal dieksekusi oleh NKVD telah dihapus dari teks dan foto-foto seolah-olah mereka tidak pernah ada. Secara bertahap, sejarah revolusi berubah untuk cerita tentang dua karakter utama: Lenin dan Stalin.
Dalam terang wahyu dari arsip Soviet, sejarawan kini memperkirakan bahwa hampir 700.000 orang (353.074 pada tahun 1937 dan 328.612 pada 1938) dieksekusi dalam perjalanan teror,[34] dengan massa korban yang sangat banyak yang "biasa" warga Soviet: buruh, petani, ibu rumah tangga, guru, imam, musisi, tentara, pensiunan, balerina, pengemis.[35][36] Beberapa ahli percaya bukti dilepaskan dari arsip Soviet bersahaja, tidak lengkap atau tidak dapat diandalkan.[37][38][39][40][41] Sebagai contoh, Robert Conquest menunjukkan bahwa angka kemungkinan untuk eksekusi selama tahun-tahun Pembersihan Besar tidak 681.692, namun beberapa dua setengah kali lebih tinggi. Ia percaya bahwa KGB menutupi trek dengan memalsukan tanggal dan penyebab kematian korban direhabilitasi.[42]
Stalin secara pribadi ditandatangani 357 pelarangan daftar pada tahun 1937 dan 1938 yang mengutuk eksekusi sekitar 40.000 orang, dan sekitar 90% di antaranya dikonfirmasi telah ditembak.[43] Pada saat itu, saat meninjau salah satu daftar tersebut, Stalin dilaporkan bergumam kepada siapa pun khususnya: "akan mengingat semua ini riff-sampah dalam sepuluh atau dua puluh tahun Tidak ada waktu?'s. Who Siapa yang mengingat nama-nama sekarang dari bangsawan Ivan the Terrible dari? Tidak punya. satu menyingkirkan "[44] Di samping itu, Stalin dikirim kontingen NKVD operatif untuk Mongolia, mendirikan versi Mongolia dari troika NKVD dan melepaskan pembersihan berdarah di mana puluhan ribu orang dieksekusi sebagai 'Spies Jepang. " Mongolia penguasa Khorloogiin Choibalsan diikuti's memimpin Stalin.[45]
Penduduk transfer
Artikel utama: Penduduk transfer di Uni Soviet
Pertemuan di sel penjara, sebuah ilustrasi oleh Eufrosinia Kersnovskaya
Sesaat sebelum, selama dan segera setelah Perang Dunia II, Stalin melakukan serangkaian deportasi pada skala besar yang sangat mempengaruhi peta etnis Uni Soviet. Diperkirakan bahwa antara tahun 1941 dan 1949 hampir 3,3 juta[4] dideportasi ke Siberia dan republik Asia Tengah. Dengan beberapa perkiraan hingga 43% dari populasi dipindahkan meninggal karena penyakit dan kekurangan gizi.[46]
Separatisme, ketahanan terhadap pemerintahan Soviet dan kolaborasi dengan Jerman menyerang dikutip sebagai alasan resmi untuk deportasi, benar atau salah. keadaan individu dari mereka menghabiskan waktu di wilayah yang diduduki Jerman tidak diperiksa.[47] Setelah pendudukan Nazi singkat Kaukasus, seluruh penduduk lima dari masyarakat dataran tinggi kecil dan Tatar Krimea - lebih dari satu juta orang secara total - dideportasi tanpa pemberitahuan atau kesempatan apapun untuk mengambil harta mereka.[47]
Selama ini pemerintahan Stalin kelompok etnis berikut dideportasi sepenuhnya atau sebagian: Ukraina, Polandia, Rumania, Korea, Volga Jerman, Crimean Tatar, Kalmyks, Chechen, Ingush, Balkars, Karachays, Meskhetian Turki, Finlandia, Bulgaria, Yunani, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonians, dan Yahudi. Sejumlah besar kulak, terlepas dari kewarganegaraan mereka, yang dipindahkan ke Siberia dan Asia Tengah. Deportasi terjadi dalam kondisi yang mengerikan, seringkali dengan truk ternak, dan ratusan ribu dideportasi meninggal dalam perjalanan.[4] Mereka yang selamat dipaksa bekerja tanpa bayaran di kamp kerja paksa. Banyak dideportasi meninggal karena kelaparan atau kondisi lainnya.
Menurut perkiraan Soviet resmi, lebih dari 14 juta orang melewati Gulag 1929-1953, dengan 7 sampai 8 lebih juta yang dideportasi dan diasingkan ke daerah-daerah terpencil di Uni Soviet (termasuk seluruh bangsa dalam beberapa kasus).[48]
Pada bulan Februari 1956, Nikita Khrushchev mengutuk deportasi sebagai pelanggaran Leninisme, dan diputarbalikkan sebagian besar dari mereka, meskipun tidak sampai tahun 1991 bahwa Tatar, Meskhetians dan Volga Jerman diizinkan untuk kembali secara besar-besaran ke daerah asal mereka. Deportasi memiliki efek mendalam pada masyarakat Uni Soviet. Memori dari deportasi memainkan peranan utama dalam gerakan separatis di Amerika Baltik, Tatarstan , dan Chechnya, bahkan hari ini.
Kolektipisasi
Artikel utama: Kolektivisasi di Uni Soviet
rezim Stalin pindah untuk memaksa kolektivisasi pertanian. Ini dimaksudkan untuk meningkatkan hasil pertanian dari skala mekanik peternakan-besar, untuk membawa kaum tani di bawah pengawasan langsung politik lebih, dan untuk membuat koleksi pajak lebih efisien. Kolektivisasi berarti perubahan sosial drastis, pada skala yang tidak terlihat sejak penghapusan perhambaan pada tahun 1861, dan keterasingan dari kontrol atas tanah dan produknya. Kolektivisasi juga berarti penurunan drastis standar hidup bagi banyak petani, dan menghadapi reaksi keras di kalangan kaum tani.
Pada tahun-tahun pertama kolektivisasi diperkirakan bahwa produksi industri akan naik 200% dan produksi pertanian sebesar 50%,[49] namun perkiraan ini tidak dipenuhi. Stalin menyalahkan kegagalan ini tak terduga pada kulak (petani kaya), yang menolak kolektivisasi. (Namun, kulak tepat terdiri hanya 4% dari populasi petani, para "kulak" yang ditargetkan Stalin termasuk dari sedikit lebih baik-off petani mengambil siapa beban kekerasan OGPU dan Komsomol tersebut. ini petani sekitar 60% dari populasi). Mereka secara resmi didefinisikan sebagai "kulak," "pembantu kulak," dan kemudian "mantan-kulak" itu harus ditembak, ditempatkan dalam Gulag kamp kerja paksa, atau dideportasi ke daerah-daerah terpencil di negeri ini, tergantung pada tagihan. Archival data menunjukkan bahwa 20.201 orang telah dieksekusi selama tahun 1930, tahun Dekulakization.[45]
The-tahap kemajuan dua kolektivisasi-sela tahun dengan cara yang terkenal editorial's Stalin, "Dizzy dengan keberhasilan"[50] dan "Balas ke Kolektif Farm Kawan-kawan"[51]-merupakan contoh utama dari kapasitasnya untuk penarikan politik taktis diikuti oleh intensifikasi strategi awal.
Kelaparan
Kelaparan mempengaruhi bagian lain dari Uni Soviet. Jumlah korban tewas akibat kelaparan di Uni Soviet saat ini diperkirakan antara lima dan sepuluh juta orang.[52] Kegagalan panen terburuk dari tsar Rusia akhir, pada tahun 1892, telah menyebabkan 375.000 menjadi 400.000 kematian.[53] Kebanyakan sarjana modern setuju bahwa kelaparan tersebut disebabkan oleh kebijakan pemerintah Uni Soviet di bawah Stalin, bukan oleh alasan alami.[54]
Memasuki Gulag (daun dari Eufrosinia Kersnovskayanotebook s ')
Menurut Alan Bullock, "biji-bijian tanaman Soviet total tidak lebih buruk dari pada 1931 ... itu bukan gagal panen tetapi tuntutan yang berlebihan dari negara, kejam dipaksakan, bahwa biaya hidup sebanyak lima juta petani Ukraina . " Stalin menolak untuk melepaskan cadangan biji-bijian besar yang bisa meringankan bencana kelaparan, sambil terus ekspor gandum, ia yakin bahwa para petani Ukraina telah menyembunyikan gandum pergi, dan ketat kejam kolektif-pertanian pencurian undang-undang baru di respon.[55][56] sejarawan lain tahan sebagian besar panen tidak cukup 1931 dan 1932 disebabkan oleh berbagai bencana alam yang mengakibatkan kelaparan, dengan panen yang sukses tahun 1933 mengakhiri kelaparan.[57] Soviet dan sejarawan lain berpendapat bahwa kolektivisasi cepat pertanian diperlukan untuk mencapai cepat industrialisasi yang sama dari Uni Soviet dan akhirnya menang Perang Dunia II. Hal ini masih diperdebatkan oleh para sejarawan lainnya; Alec Nove mengklaim bahwa Uni Soviet meskipun industri, bukan karena, pertanian kolektif tersebut.
USSR juga mengalami kelaparan besar pada tahun 1947 sebagai akibat dari kerusakan akibat perang dan kekeringan berat, namun ekonom Michael Ellman berpendapat bahwa hal itu bisa dicegah jika pemerintah tidak salah mengurus cadangan biji-bijian tersebut. kelaparan Biaya sebuah 1 diperkirakan 1,5 juta jiwa serta kerugian populasi sekunder disebabkan oleh menurunnya kesuburan.[58]
Ukraina kelaparan
Artikel utama: Holodomor
Kelaparan Holodomor kadang-kadang disebut sebagai Ukraina Genosida, menyiratkan hal itu direkayasa oleh pemerintah Soviet, khususnya menargetkan orang Ukraina untuk menghancurkan bangsa Ukraina sebagai faktor politik dan entitas sosial.[59] Sementara sejarawan tetap tidak setuju apakah kebijakan yang menyebabkan jatuh Holodomor bawah definisi hukum genosida, 26 negara telah secara resmi mengakui Holodomor seperti itu. Pada tanggal 28 November 2006, Parlemen Ukraina menyetujui tagihan, sesuai dengan yang era-Soviet terpaksa kelaparan adalah tindakan genosida terhadap orang-orang Ukraina.[60] Profesor Michael Ellman menyimpulkan bahwa Ukraina menjadi korban genosida di 1932-1933, menurut lebih definisi santai, yang disukai oleh beberapa ahli di bidang studi genosida. Dia menegaskan bahwa kebijakan Soviet sangat diperburuk kematian tol kelaparan (seperti penggunaan penyiksaan dan eksekusi untuk mengekstrak biji-bijian (lihat Hukum Spikelets), dengan 1,8 juta ton dapat diekspor selama puncak-kelaparan cukup untuk memberi makan 5 juta orang selama satu tahun, penggunaan kekuatan untuk mencegah kelaparan petani dari melarikan diri dari daerah yang terkena dampak paling parah, dan penolakan untuk mengimpor gandum atau kemanusiaan bantuan internasional aman untuk meringankan penderitaan) dan bahwa Stalin dimaksudkan untuk digunakan sebagai kelaparan dan efisien berarti murah (sebagai lawan dari deportasi dan penembakan) untuk membunuh orang-orang yang dianggap "kontra-revolusioner," "pemalas," dan "pencuri," tapi tidak untuk memusnahkan kaum tani Ukraina secara keseluruhan. Ia juga mengklaim bahwa, sementara ini tidak Soviet genosida saja (misalnya The operasi Polandia NKVD), itu adalah yang terburuk dalam hal korban massa.[43]
Saat ini perkiraan jumlah korban dalam jangkauan Ukraina Uni Soviet kebanyakan dari 2,2 juta[61][62] sampai dengan 4 untuk 5 juta.[63][64][65]
Sebuah pengadilan Ukraina ditemukan Josef Stalin dan para pemimpin lainnya dari Uni Soviet bersalah karena genosida oleh "mengorganisir kelaparan massal di Ukraina pada 1932-1933" pada Januari 2010. Namun, pengadilan "turun proses pidana atas tersangka kematian itu".[66][67]
Industrialisasi
Para Perang Saudara Rusia dan komunisme perang memiliki efek buruk pada negara perekonomian. Produksi industri pada tahun 1922 adalah 13% dari tahun 1914. Sebuah pemulihan diikuti di bawah Kebijakan Ekonomi Baru, yang memungkinkan tingkat fleksibilitas pasar dalam konteks sosialisme. Under arah Stalin, ini diganti dengan sistem terpusat ditahbiskan "Tahun Rencana Lima" pada akhir tahun 1920. Ini menyerukan agar program yang sangat ambisius dari dipandu crash-negara industrialisasi dan kolektivisasi pertanian.
Dengan modal benih tersedia karena reaksi internasional untuk kebijakan Komunis, kecil perdagangan internasional, dan hampir tidak ada infrastruktur modern,'s pemerintah Stalin dibiayai industrialisasi baik dengan menahan konsumsi pada bagian warga Soviet biasa untuk memastikan modal yang pergi untuk kembali investasi ke dalam industri, dan kejam oleh ekstraksi kekayaan dari kulak.
Pada tahun 1933 pendapatan riil 'pekerja tenggelam sekitar sepersepuluh dari tingkat tahun 1926.[rujukan?] dan tahanan politik umum di kamp kerja dipaksa untuk melakukan kerja yang tidak dibayar, dan komunis dan Komsomol anggota sering "dimobilisasi" untuk berbagai proyek konstruksi. Uni Soviet digunakan ahli asing banyak, untuk merancang pabrik baru, mengawasi konstruksi, menginstruksikan pekerja dan meningkatkan proses manufaktur. Kontraktor luar negeri yang paling penting adalah Albert Kahn perusahaan yang dirancang dan dibangun 521 pabrik antara 1930 dan 1932. Sebagai aturan, pabrik disuplai dengan peralatan impor.
Terlepas dari kerusakan dini dan kegagalan, dua yang pertama-Rencana Lima Tahun dicapai industrialisasi yang pesat dari ekonomi basa rendah sangat. Meskipun umumnya sepakat bahwa Uni Soviet mencapai tingkat pertumbuhan ekonomi yang signifikan di bawah Stalin, laju pertumbuhan yang tepat adalah sengketa. Hal ini tidak diperdebatkan, bagaimanapun, bahwa keuntungan tersebut dicapai dengan biaya jutaan jiwa. Soviet resmi dinyatakan perkiraan tingkat pertumbuhan tahunan sebesar 13,9%, dan perkiraan Rusia Barat memberikan angka yang lebih rendah antara 5,8% dan bahkan 2,9%. Memang, salah satu perkiraan adalah bahwa pertumbuhan Soviet menjadi jauh lebih tinggi sementara setelah kematian Stalin.[68]
Menurut Robert Lewis Lima Tahun Rencana substansial membantu untuk memodernisasi ekonomi Soviet mundur sebelumnya. Produk baru dikembangkan, dan skala dan efisiensi produksi yang ada sangat meningkat. Beberapa inovasi tersebut berdasarkan perkembangan teknis adat, yang lain pada teknologi asing diimpor.[69] Meskipun biaya, upaya industrialisasi mengijinkan Uni Soviet untuk melawan, dan akhirnya menang, Perang Dunia II.
Ilmu pengetahuan
Artikel utama: Ilmu dan teknologi di Uni Soviet dan penelitian ditekan di Uni Soviet
Sains di Uni Soviet berada di bawah kontrol ideologis yang ketat oleh Stalin dan pemerintah, bersama dengan seni dan sastra. Ada kemajuan yang signifikan dalam "ideologis aman" domain, karena bebas pendidikan Soviet -sistem dan penelitian dibiayai negara. Namun, dalam beberapa kasus konsekuensi dari tekanan ideologi yang dramatis-yang penting contoh yang paling menjadi "borjuis pseudosciences" genetika dan sibernetika. Beberapa daerah fisika dikritik,[70][71] Namun, meskipun awalnya direncanakan,[72] sementara Stalin secara pribadi dan langsung memberikan kontribusi untuk belajar di Linguistik, karya prinsip yang merupakan esai kecil, "dan Bahasa Pertanyaan Marxisme."[73] Penelitian ilmiah adalah terhalang oleh kenyataan bahwa banyak ilmuwan dikirim ke kamp kerja paksa (termasuk Lev Landau, yang kemudian menjadi Hadiah Nobel pemenang, yang menghabiskan satu tahun di penjara di 1938-1939) atau dieksekusi (misalnya Lev Shubnikov, ditembak pada tahun 1937 ).
Pelayanan sosial
Artikel utama: demokrasi Soviet
Di bawah orang-orang pemerintah Soviet manfaat dari beberapa liberalisasi sosial. Gadis-gadis itu diberi sama, pendidikan yang memadai dan wanita memiliki hak yang sama dalam kerja,[12] memperbaiki kehidupan bagi perempuan dan keluarga. pembangunan Stalinis juga memberikan kontribusi untuk kemajuan dalam perawatan kesehatan, yang secara signifikan meningkatkan umur dan kualitas hidup warga Soviet khas.[12] Teman-kebijakan Stalin yang diberikan orang-orang Soviet akses universal untuk kesehatan dan pendidikan, efektif menciptakan generasi pertama bebas dari rasa takut dari tifus, kolera, dan malaria.[74] The kejadian penyakit ini turun untuk merekam angka yang rendah, meningkatkan rentang hidup dengan dekade.[74]
wanita Soviet di bawah Stalin adalah generasi pertama dari perempuan mampu melahirkan di rumah sakit keselamatan, dengan akses ke perawatan kehamilan.[74] Pendidikan juga merupakan contoh peningkatan standar hidup setelah pembangunan ekonomi. Generasi yang lahir pada pemerintahan Stalin adalah generasi dekat-universal melek pertama. Jutaan manfaat dari kampanye keaksaraan massa di tahun 1930, dan dari pekerja pelatihan skema.[75] Engineers dikirim ke luar negeri untuk mempelajari teknologi industri, dan ratusan insinyur asing dibawa ke Rusia pada kontrak.[74] Transportasi link ditingkatkan dan banyak yang baru kereta api dibangun. Pekerja yang melebihi kuota mereka, Stakhanovites, menerima banyak insentif untuk pekerjaan mereka;[75] mereka mampu untuk membeli barang yang diproduksi secara massal oleh Soviet ekonomi berkembang dengan cepat.
Peningkatan permintaan akibat industrialisasi dan penurunan tenaga kerja akibat Perang Dunia II dan represi menghasilkan ekspansi besar dalam kesempatan kerja bagi para korban, terutama bagi perempuan.[75]
Budaya
Artikel utama: Realisme Sosialis
Meskipun lahir di Georgia, Stalin menjadi seorang nasionalis Rusia dan dipromosikan secara signifikan sejarah Rusia, bahasa, dan pahlawan nasional Rusia, khususnya selama tahun 1930-an dan 1940-an. Dia memegang Rusia sebagai saudara tua dari minoritas non-Rusia.[76]
Selama ini pemerintahan Stalin yang resmi dan berumur panjang gaya Realisme Sosialis didirikan untuk lukisan, patung,, drama musik dan sastra. Sebelumnya modis "revolusioner" ekspresionisme, seni abstrak, dan avant-garde eksperimen adalah berkecil hati atau dikecam sebagai "formalisme".
Terkenal angka tersebut ditekan, dan banyak dianiaya, disiksa dan dieksekusi, baik "revolusioner" (di antara mereka Isaac Babel, Vsevolod Meyerhold, Anna Akhmatova, Nikolai Gumilev, Lev Gumilev) dan "non-konformis" (misalnya, Osip Mandelstam). Sejumlah kecil sisa-revolusioner Rusia pra selamat[klarifikasi diperlukan]. Tingkat pribadi keterlibatan's Stalin secara umum, dan dalam kasus tertentu, telah menjadi topik diskusi. novel favorit Stalin Firaun, berbagi kesamaan dengan Sergei Eisensteinfilm s ', Ivan the Terrible, diproduksi di bawah ini bimbingan Stalin.
Dalam arsitektur, seorang Stalinis Kekaisaran Style (pada dasarnya, diperbarui Neoclassicism pada skala yang sangat besar, dicontohkan oleh Seven Sisters Moskow) menggantikan konstruktivisme tahun 1920-an. Teman-pemerintahan Stalin memiliki efek mengganggu sebagian besar pada budaya adat di dalam Uni Soviet, meskipun politik Korenizatsiya dan dipaksa pengembangan yang mungkin bermanfaat bagi integrasi generasi kemudian budaya asli.
Agama
Artikel utama: Agama di Uni Soviet
Stalin mengikuti posisi diadopsi oleh Lenin bahwa agama adalah candu yang perlu dihilangkan dalam rangka membangun masyarakat komunis yang ideal. Untuk tujuan ini, pemerintahannya dipromosikan ateisme ateistik melalui pendidikan khusus di sekolah, sejumlah besar propaganda anti-agama, karya anti-lembaga publik (khususnya Masyarakat dari Godless), hukum diskriminatif, dan juga kampanye teror terhadap penganut agama. Oleh 1930-an telah menjadi berbahaya akan disampaikan kepada publik berkaitan dengan agama.[77]
peran Stalin pada nasib dari Gereja Ortodoks Rusia adalah kompleks. penganiayaan terus-menerus pada tahun 1930 mengakibatkan hampir punah-nya sebagai lembaga publik: pada tahun 1939, paroki aktif berjumlah ratusan rendah (turun dari 54.000 di 1917), banyak gereja sudah diratakan, dan puluhan ribu imam, biarawan dan biarawati dianiaya dan dibunuh. Lebih dari 100.000 ditembak selama pembersihan dari 1937-1938.[78] Selama Perang Dunia II, Gereja diizinkan kebangkitan sebagai organisasi patriotik, setelah NKVD telah merekrut yang baru metropolitan, yang pertama setelah revolusi, sebagai agen rahasia . Ribuan paroki diaktifkan kembali sampai putaran lebih lanjut dari penindasan di Khrushchev waktu. Gereja Ortodoks Rusia Sinode's Pengakuan pemerintah Soviet dan Stalin secara pribadi menyebabkan skisma dengan Gereja Ortodoks Rusia di luar Rusia.
Hanya beberapa hari sebelum kematian Stalin, sekte agama tertentu adalah dilarang dan dianiaya. Gereja, Banyak agama yang populer di daerah etnis dari Uni Soviet termasuk Katolik Roma Uniats, Baptis, Islam, Budha, Yudaisme, dll mengalami cobaan mirip dengan gereja-gereja Ortodoks di bagian lain: ribuan biarawan dianiaya, dan ratusan gereja , sinagoga, masjid, kuil, monumen suci, biara dan bangunan keagamaan lainnya diratakan.
Teoretisi
Artikel utama: Stalinisme
Stalin dan pendukungnya telah menyoroti gagasan bahwa sosialisme dapat dibangun dan dikonsolidasikan oleh negara sebagai berkembang seperti Rusia selama tahun 1920. Memang ini mungkin satu-satunya di mana ia bisa dibangun dalam lingkungan yang tidak bersahabat.[79] Pada tahun 1933, Stalin mengajukan teori kejengkelan dari perjuangan kelas seiring dengan perkembangan sosialisme, dengan alasan bahwa negara lebih jauh akan bergerak depan, bentuk yang lebih akut perjuangan akan digunakan oleh sisa-sisa ditakdirkan kelas pengeksploitasi dalam upaya putus asa terakhir mereka - dan bahwa, oleh karena itu, represi politik yang diperlukan.
Pada tahun 1936, Stalin mengumumkan bahwa masyarakat Uni Soviet terdiri dari dua kelas non-antagonis: pekerja dan kolkhoz tani. Ini berhubungan dengan dua bentuk yang berbeda dari milik atas alat-alat produksi yang ada di Uni Soviet: kekayaan negara (bagi pekerja) dan harta bersama (untuk kaum tani). Selain itu, Stalin membedakan strata intelektual. Konsep "non-antagonis kelas" sepenuhnya baru terhadap teori Leninis. Diantara's kontribusi Stalin untuk literatur teoritis Komunis "dialektis dan Materialisme Sejarah, "" Marxisme dan Pertanyaan Nasional "," Trotskisme atau Leninisme ", dan" Prinsip Leninisme. "
Menghitung jumlah korban
Para peneliti sebelum pembubaran 1991 Uni Soviet mencoba untuk menghitung jumlah orang yang tewas di bawah rezim Stalin yang dihasilkan estimasi waktu 3 sampai 60 juta.[80] Setelah Uni Soviet dibubarkan, bukti dari arsip Soviet juga menjadi tersedia, berisi catatan resmi eksekusi sekitar 800.000 tahanan di bawah Stalin untuk salah satu atau pidana kejahatan politik, sekitar 1,7 juta kematian di gulag dan beberapa 390.000 kematian selama kulak pemindahan paksa - total sekitar 3 juta resmi korban dalam mencatat kategori. untuk[81]
The arsip catatan resmi Soviet tidak mengandung angka yang komprehensif untuk beberapa kategori korban, seperti orang-orang dari etnis deportasi atau pemindahan penduduk Jerman pasca Perang Dunia II.[82] Pada 1948, menurut Nicolas Werth, angka kematian dari 600.000 orang dideportasi dari Kaukasus antara 1943 dan 1944 telah mencapai 25 persen.[83] pengecualian terkenal lainnya dari NKVD data pada kematian represi termasuk pembantaian Katyn, pembunuhan lain di daerah yang baru diduduki, dan penembakan massa dari Tentara Merah personil (desertir dan yang disebut desersi sehingga) pada tahun 1941. Soviet dieksekusi 158.000 tentara karena desersi selama perang,[84] dan "detasemen memblokir" dari ribuan NKVD ditembak lagi.[85] Selain itu, statistik resmi tentang kematian Gulag mengecualikan kematian tahanan terjadi tak lama setelah mereka dibebaskan tetapi yang dihasilkan dari perlakuan kasar di kamp-kamp.[86] Beberapa sejarawan juga percaya angka arsip resmi dari kategori yang direkam oleh pemerintah Soviet dapat diandalkan dan tidak lengkap.[87][88] Di samping kegagalan tentang rekaman yang komprehensif, sebagai salah satu contoh tambahan, Robert Gellately dan Simon Sebayang-Montefiore membantah banyak tersangka dipukuli dan disiksa sampai mati sementara di "tahanan investigasi" kemungkinan besar tidak telah dihitung di antara dieksekusi.[12][89]
Sejarawan kerja setelah Soviet Uni pembubaran tersebut telah memperkirakan korban total berkisar dari sekitar 4 juta untuk hampir 10 juta, tidak termasuk mereka yang meninggal dalam kelaparan.[90] Rusia penulis Vadim Erlikman, misalnya, membuat perkiraan sebagai berikut: eksekusi, 1,5 juta; gulag, 5 juta, deportasi, 1,7 juta dari 7,5 juta dideportasi, dan tawanan perang dan warga sipil Jerman, 1 juta - total sekitar 9 juta korban penindasan.[91]
Beberapa juga menyertakan kematian 6 sampai 8 juta orang dalam kelaparan 1932-1933 sebagai korban's penindasan Stalin. kategorisasi ini kontroversial Namun, sebagai sejarawan berbeda pendapat apakah bencana kelaparan merupakan bagian sengaja kampanye penindasan terhadap kulak dan lain-lain,[43][92][93] atau hanya sebuah konsekuensi yang tidak diinginkan dari perjuangan atas kolektivisasi paksa.[56][94][95]
Oleh karena itu, jika korban kelaparan dimasukkan, minimal sekitar 10 juta kematian-6 juta dari kelaparan dan 4 juta dari penyebab-lain dikaitkan dengan rezim,[96] dengan sejumlah sejarawan baru-baru ini menunjukkan total kemungkinan sekitar 20 juta , mengutip korban total yang lebih tinggi banyak dari eksekusi, gulag, deportasi dan penyebab lainnya.[97] Menambahkan 6-8.000.000 korban kelaparan dapat's perkiraan Erlikman di atas, misalnya, akan menghasilkan total antara 15 dan 17 juta korban. Peneliti Robert Conquest, sementara itu, telah merevisi perkiraan aslinya hingga 30 juta korban sampai 20 juta.[98] Dalam edisi terbaru tentang The Great Terror (2007), Penaklukan menyatakan bahwa sementara angka pastinya tidak akan pernah diketahui dengan lengkap kepastian, kampanye berbagai teror yang diluncurkan oleh pemerintah Soviet mengklaim tidak kurang dari 15 juta jiwa.[99] Lain-lain mempertahankan bahwa jumlah korban sebelumnya yang lebih tinggi perkiraan mereka sudah benar.[100][101]
World War II, 1939–1945
Main article: Joseph Stalin in World War II
Ribbentrop and Stalin at the signing of the Pact
Pact with Hitler
The frequent references in this article or section reduce readability.
Please improve the article by rearranging citations so they interrupt the text less frequently.
After a failed attempt to sign an anti-German military alliance with France and Britain[102][103][104] and talks with Germany regarding a potential political deal,[102][103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111] on 23 August 1939, the Soviet Union entered into a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany, negotiated by Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov and German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop.[112] Officially a non-aggression treaty only, an appended secret protocol, also reached on 23 August 1939, divided the whole of eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence.[113][114]
The eastern part of Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Finland and part of Romania were recognized as parts of the Soviet sphere of influence,[114] with Lithuania added in a second secret protocol in September 1939.[115] Stalin and Ribbentrop traded toasts on the night of the signing discussing past hostilities between the countries.[116]
Implementing the division of Eastern Europe and other invasions
On 1 September 1939, the German invasion of its agreed upon portion of Poland started World War II.[112] On 17 September the Red Army invaded eastern Poland and occupied the Polish territory assigned to it by the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, followed by co-ordination with German forces in Poland.[117][118] Eleven days later, the secret protocol of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was modified, allotting Germany a larger part of Poland, while ceding most of Lithuania to the Soviet Union.[119]
Planned and actual territorial changes in Eastern and Central Europe 1939–1940 (click to enlarge)
After Stalin declared that he was going to "solve the Baltic problem", by June 1940, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia were merged into the Soviet Union, after repressions and actions therein brought about the deaths of over 160,000 citizens of these states.[119][120][121][122] After facing stiff resistance in an invasion of Finland,[123] an interim peace was entered, granting the Soviet Union the eastern region of Karelia (10% of Finnish territory).[123]
After this campaign, Stalin took actions to bolster the Soviet military, modify training and improve propaganda efforts in the Soviet military.[124] In June 1940, Stalin directed the Soviet annexation of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina, proclaiming this formerly Romanian territory part of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic.[125] But in annexing northern Bukovina, Stalin had gone beyond the agreed limits of the secret protocol.[125]
Stalin and Molotov on the signing of the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact with the Empire of Japan, 1941
After the Tripartite Pact was signed by Axis Powers Germany, Japan and Italy, in October 1940, Stalin traded letters with Ribbentrop, with Stalin writing about entering an agreement regarding a "permanent basis" for their "mutual interests."[126] After a conference in Berlin between Hitler, Molotov and Ribbentrop, Germany presented the Molotov with a proposed written agreement for Axis entry.[125][127] On 25 November, Stalin responded with a proposed written agreement for Axis entry which was never answered by Germany.[128] Shortly thereafter, Hitler issued a secret directive on the eventual attempts to invade the Soviet Union.[128] In an effort to demonstrate peaceful intentions toward Germany, on 13 April 1941, Stalin oversaw the signing of a neutrality pact with Axis power Japan.[129]
Hitler breaks the pact
During the early morning of 22 June 1941, Hitler broke the pact by implementing Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of Soviet held territories and the Soviet Union that began the war on the Eastern Front.[130] Although Stalin had received warnings from spies and his generals,[131][132][133][134][135] he felt that Germany would not attack the Soviet Union until Germany had defeated Britain.[131] In the initial hours after the German attack commenced, Stalin hesitated, wanting to ensure that the German attack was sanctioned by Hitler, rather than the unauthorized action of a rogue general.[12]
Accounts by Nikita Khrushchev and Anastas Mikoyan claim that, after the invasion, Stalin retreated to his dacha in despair for several days and did not participate in leadership decisions.[136] However, some documentary evidence of orders given by Stalin contradicts these accounts, leading some historians to speculate that Khruschev's account is inaccurate.[137] By the end of 1941, the Soviet military had suffered 4.3 million casualties[138] and German forces had advanced 1,050 miles (1,690 kilometers).[139]
Soviets stop the Germans
While the Germans pressed forward, Stalin was confident of an eventual Allied victory over Germany. In September 1941, Stalin told British diplomats that he wanted two agreements: (1) a mutual assistance/aid pact and (2) a recognition that, after the war, the Soviet Union would gain the territories in countries that it had taken pursuant to its division of Eastern Europe with Hitler in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.[140] The British agreed to assistance but refused to agree upon the territorial gains, which Stalin accepted months later as the military situation deteriorated somewhat in mid-1942.[140] By December, Hitler's troops had advanced to within 20 miles of the Kremlin in Moscow.[141] On 5 December, the Soviets launched a counteroffensive, pushing German troops back 40–50 miles from Moscow, the Wehrmacht's first significant defeat of the war.[141]
In 1942, Hitler shifted his primary goal from an immediate victory in the East, to the more long-term goal of securing the southern Soviet Union to protect oil fields vital to a long-term German war effort.[142] While Red Army generals saw evidence that Hitler would shift efforts south, Stalin considered this to be a flanking campaign in efforts to take Moscow.[143] During the war, Time Magazine named Stalin Time Person of the Year twice[144] and he was also one of the nominees for Time Person of the Century title.
Soviet push to Germany
The Soviets repulsed the important German strategic southern campaign and, although 2.5 million Soviet casualties were suffered in that effort, it permitted the Soviets to take the offensive for most of the rest of the war on the Eastern Front.[145]
The Big Three: Stalin, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill at the Tehran Conference, November 1943.
Germany attempted an encirclement attack at Kursk, which was successfully repulsed by the Soviets.[146] Kursk marked the beginning of a period where Stalin became more willing to listen to the advice of his generals.[147] By the end of 1943, the Soviets occupied half of the territory taken by the Germans from 1941–1942.[147] Soviet military industrial output also had increased substantially from late 1941 to early 1943 after Stalin had moved factories well to the East of the front, safe from German invasion and air attack.[148]
In November 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in Tehran.[149] The parties later agreed that Britain and America would launch a cross-channel invasion of France in May 1944, along with a separate invasion of southern France.[150] Stalin insisted that, after the war, the Soviet Union should incorporate the portions of Poland it occupied pursuant to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Germany, which Churchill tabled.[151]
In 1944, the Soviet Union made significant advances across Eastern Europe toward Germany,[152] including Operation Bagration, a massive offensive in Belorussia against the German Army Group Centre.[153]
Final victory
By April 1945, Germany faced its last days with 1.9 million German soldiers in the East fighting 6.4 million Red Army soldiers while 1 million German soldiers in the West battled 4 million Western Allied soldiers.[154] While initial talk existed of a race to Berlin by the Allies, after Stalin successfully lobbied for Eastern Germany to fall within the Soviet "sphere of influence" at Yalta, no plans were made by the Western Allies to seize the city by a ground operation.[155][156]
On 30 April, Hitler and Eva Braun committed suicide, after which Soviet forces found their remains, which had been burned at Hitler's directive.[157] German forces surrendered a few days later. Despite the Soviets' possession of Hitler's remains, Stalin did not believe that his old nemesis was actually dead, a belief that remained for years after the war.[158][159]
Fending off the German invasion and pressing to victory in the East required a tremendous sacrifice by the Soviet Union.[160] Soviet military casualties totaled approximately 35 million (official figures 28.2 million) with approximately 14.7 million killed, missing or captured (official figures 11.285 million).[161] Although figures vary, the Soviet civilian death toll probably reached 20 million.[161] One of every four Soviet citizens was killed or wounded in that war.[162] Some 1,710 towns and 70,000 villages were destroyed.[163] Thereafter, Stalin was at times referred to as one of the most influential men in human history.[164][165]
Nobel Prize in Peace nominations
In 1945, he was mentioned by Halvdan Koht among seven candidates that were qualified for the Nobel Prize in Peace. However, he did not explicitly nominate any of them. The person actually nominated was Cordell Hull.[166]
In 1948, he was officially nominated for the Nobel Prize in Peace by Wladislav Rieger.[167]
Questionable tactics
Part of the 5 March 1940 memo from Lavrentiy Beria to Stalin proposing execution of Polish officers
After taking around 300,000 Polish prisoners in 1939 and early 1940,[168][169][169][170][171] 25,700 Polish POWs were executed on 5 March 1940, pursuant to a note from to Stalin from Lavrenty Beria, the members of the Soviet Politburo,[172][173] in what became known as the Katyn massacre.[174][172][175] While Stalin personally told a Polish general they'd "lost track" of the officers in Manchuria,[176][177][178][178] Polish railroad workers found the mass grave after the 1941 Nazi invasion.[179] The massacre became a source of political controversy,[180][181] with the Soviets eventually claiming that Germany committed the executions when the Soviet Union retook Poland in 1944.[172][182] The Soviets did not admit responsibility until 1990.[183]
Stalin introduced controversial military orders, such as Order No. 270, requiring superiors to shoot deserters on the spot[184] while their family members were subject to arrest.[185] Thereafter, Stalin also conducted a purge of several military commanders that were shot for "cowardice" without a trial.[185] Stalin issued Order No. 227, directing that commanders permitting retreat without permission to be subject to a military tribunal,[186] and soldiers guilty of disciplinary procedures to be forced into "penal battalions", which were sent to the most dangerous sections of the front lines.[186] From 1942 to 1945, 427,910 soldiers were assigned to penal battalions.[187] The order also directed "blocking detachments" to shoot fleeing panicked troops at the rear.[186]
In June 1941, weeks after the German invasion began, Stalin also directed employing a scorched earth policy of destroying the infrastructure and food supplies of areas before the Germans could seize them, and that partisans were to be set up in evacuated areas.[137] He also ordered the NKVD to murder around one hundred thousand political prisoners in areas where the Wermacht approached,[188] while others were deported east.[87][189]
After the capture of Berlin, Soviet troops reportedly raped from tens of thousands to two million women,[190] and 50,000 during and after the occupation of Budapest.[191][192] In former Axis countries, such as Germany, Romania and Hungary, Red Army officers generally viewed cities, villages and farms as being open to pillaging and looting.[193]
In the Soviet Occupation Zone of post-war Germany, the Soviets set up ten NKVD-run "special camps" subordinate to the gulag.[194] These "special camps" were former Stalags, prisons, or Nazi concentration camps such as Sachsenhausen (special camp number 7) and Buchenwald (special camp number 2).[195] According to German government estimates, "65,000 people died in those Soviet-run camps or in transportation to them."[196]
According to recent figures, of an estimated four million POWs taken by the Soviets, including Germans, Japanese, Hungarians, Romanians and others, some 580,000 never returned, presumably victims of privation or the Gulags.[197] Soviet POWs and forced laborers who survived German captivity were sent to special "transit" or "filtration" camps to determine which were potential traitors.[198]
Of the approximately 4 million to be repatriated 2,660,013 were civilians and 1,539,475 were former POWs.[198] Of the total, 2,427,906 were sent home and 801,152 were reconscripted into the armed forces.[198] 608,095 were enrolled in the work battalions of the defense ministry.[198] 272,867 were transferred to the authority of the NKVD for punishment, which meant a transfer to the Gulag system.[198][199][200] 89,468 remained in the transit camps as reception personnel until the repatriation process was finally wound up in the early 1950s.[198]
Allied conferences on post-war Europe
The Big Three: British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Stalin at the Yalta Conference, February 1945.
Stalin met in several conferences with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (and later Clement Attlee) and/or American President Franklin D. Roosevelt (and later Harry Truman) to plan military strategy and, later, to discuss Europe's postwar reorganization. Very early conferences, such as that with British diplomats in Moscow in 1941 and with Churchill and American diplomats in Moscow in 1942, focused mostly upon war planning and supply, though some preliminary postwar reorganization discussion also occurred. In 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in the Tehran Conference. In 1944, Stalin met with Churchill in the Moscow Conference. Beginning in late 1944, the Red Army occupied much of Eastern Europe during these conferences and the discussions shifted to a more intense focus on the reorganization of postwar Europe.
In February 1945, at the conference at Yalta, Stalin demanded a Soviet sphere of political influence in Eastern Europe.[201] Stalin eventually was convinced by Churchill and Roosevelt not to dismember Germany.[201] Stalin also stated that the Polish government-in-exile demands for self-rule were not negotiable, such that the Soviet Union would keep the territory of eastern Poland they had already taken by invasion with German consent in 1939, and wanted the pro-Soviet Polish government installed.[201] After resistance by Churchill and Roosevelt, Stalin promised a re-organization of the current Communist puppet government on a broader democratic basis in Poland.[201] He stated the new government's primary task would be to prepare elections.[202]
The parties at Yalta further agreed that the countries of liberated Europe and former Axis satellites would be allowed to "create democratic institutions of their own choice", pursuant to "the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live."[203] The parties also agreed to help those countries form interim governments "pledged to the earliest possible establishment through free elections" and "facilitate where necessary the holding of such elections."[203] After the re-organization of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland, the parties agreed that the new party shall "be pledged to the holding of free and unfettered elections as soon as possible on the basis of universal suffrage and secret ballot."[203] One month after Yalta, the Soviet NKVD arrested 16 Polish leaders wishing to participate in provisional government negotiations, for alleged "crimes" and "diversions", which drew protest from the West.[202] The fraudulent Polish elections, held in January 1947 resulted in Poland's official transformation to undemocratic communist state by 1949.
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, U.S. President Harry S. Truman and Premiere Joseph Stalin at the Potsdam Conference, July 1945.
At the Potsdam Conference from July to August 1945, though Germany had surrendered months earlier, instead of withdrawing Soviet forces from Eastern European countries, Stalin had not moved those forces. At the beginning of the conference, Stalin repeated previous promises to Churchill that he would refrain from a "Sovietization" of Eastern Europe.[204] Stalin pushed for reparations from Germany without regard to the base minimum supply for German citizens' survival, which worried Truman and Churchill who thought that Germany would become a financial burden for Western powers.[205]
In addition to reparations, Stalin pushed for "war booty", which would permit the Soviet Union to directly seize property from conquered nations without quantitative or qualitative limitation, and a clause was added permitting this to occur with some limitations.[205] By July 1945, Stalin's troops effectively controlled the Baltic States, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania, and refugees were fleeing out of these countries fearing a Communist take-over. The western allies, and especially Churchill, were suspicious of the motives of Stalin, who had already installed communist governments in the central European countries under his influence.
In these conferences, his first appearances on the world stage, Stalin proved to be a formidable negotiator. Anthony Eden, the British Foreign Secretary noted: "Marshal Stalin as a negotiator was the toughest proposition of all. Indeed, after something like thirty years' experience of international conferences of one kind and another, if I had to pick a team for going into a conference room, Stalin would be my first choice. Of course the man was ruthless and of course he knew his purpose. He never wasted a word. He never stormed, he was seldom even irritated."[206]
Post-war era, 1945–1953
The Iron Curtain and the Eastern Bloc
After Soviet forces remained in Eastern and Central European countries, with the beginnings of communist puppet regimes in those countries, Churchill referred to the region as being behind an "Iron Curtain" of control from Moscow.[207][208] The countries under Soviet control in Eastern and Central Europe were sometimes called the "Eastern bloc" or "Soviet Bloc".
The Eastern Bloc until 1989.
In Soviet-controlled East Germany, the major task of the ruling communist party in Germany was to channel Soviet orders down to both the administrative apparatus and the other bloc parties pretending that these were initiatives of its own,[209] with deviations potentially leading to reprimands, imprisonment, torture and even death.[209] Property and industry were nationalized.[209]
The German Democratic Republic was declared on 7 October 1949, with a new constitution which enshrined socialism and gave the Soviet-controlled Socialist Unity Party ("SED") control. In Berlin, after citizens strongly rejected communist candidates in an election, in June 1948, the Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin, the portion of Berlin not under Soviet control, cutting off all supply of food and other items. The blockade failed due to the unexpected massive aerial resupply campaign carried out by the Western powers known as the Berlin Airlift. In 1949, Stalin conceded defeat and ended the blockade.
While Stalin had promised at the Yalta Conference that free elections would be held in Poland,[203] after an election failure in "3 times YES" elections,[210] vote rigging was employed to win a majority in the carefully controlled poll.[211][212][213] Following the forged referendum, the Polish economy started to become nationalized.[214]
In Hungary, when the Soviets installed a communist government, Mátyás Rákosi, who described himself as "Stalin's best Hungarian disciple"[215] and "Stalin's best pupil",[216] took power. Rákosi employed "salami tactics", slicing up these enemies like pieces of salami,[217] to battle the initial postwar political majority ready to establish a democracy.[218] Rákosi, employed Stalinist political and economic programs, and was dubbed the "bald murderer" for establishing one of the harshest dictatorships in Europe.[218][219] Approximately 350,000 Hungarian officials and intellectuals were purged from 1948 to 1956.[218]
During World War II, in Bulgaria, the Red Army crossed the border and created the conditions for a communist coup d'état on the following night.[220] The Soviet military commander in Sofia assumed supreme authority, and the communists whom he instructed, including Kimon Georgiev, took full control of domestic politics.[220]
In 1949, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania founded the Comecon in accordance with Stalin's desire to enforce Soviet domination of the lesser states of Central Europe and to mollify some states that had expressed interest in the Marshall Plan,[221] and which were now, increasingly, cut off from their traditional markets and suppliers in Western Europe.[222] Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland had remained interested in Marshall aid despite the requirements for a convertible currency and market economies. In July 1947, Stalin ordered these communist-dominated governments to pull out of the Paris Conference on the European Recovery Programme. This has been described as "the moment of truth" in the post-World War II division of Europe.[222]
In Greece, Britain and the United States supported the anti-communists in the Greek Civil War and suspected the Soviets of supporting the Greek communists, although Stalin refrained from getting involved in Greece, dismissing the movement as premature. Albania remained an ally of the Soviet Union, but Yugoslavia broke with the USSR in 1948.
In Stalin's last year of life, one of his last major foreign policy initiatives was the 1952 Stalin Note for German reunification and Superpower disengagement from Central Europe, but Britain, France, and the United States viewed this with suspicion and rejected the offer.
Sino-Soviet Relations
Stalin and Mao Zedong on Chinese Postage stamp
In Asia, the Red Army had overrun Manchuria in the last month of the war and then also occupied Korea above the 38th parallel north. Mao Zedong's Communist Party of China, though receptive to minimal Soviet support, defeated the pro-Western and heavily American-assisted Chinese Nationalist Party in the Chinese Civil War.
There was friction between Stalin and Mao from the beginning. During World War II Stalin had supported the socialist dictator of China, Chiang Kai-Shek, as a bulwark against Japan and had turned a blind eye to Chiang's mass killings of communists. He generally put his alliance with Chiang against Japan ahead of helping his ideological allies in China in his priorities. Even after the war Stalin concluded a non-aggression pact between the USSR and Chiang's Kuomintang (KMT) regime in China and instructed Mao and the Chinese communists to cooperate with Chiang and the KMT after the war. Mao did not follow Stalin's instructions though and started a communist revolution against Chiang. Stalin did not believe Mao would be successful so he was less than enthusiastic in helping Mao. The USSR continued to maintain diplomatic relations with Chiang's KMT regime until 1949 when it became clear Mao would win.
Stalin did conclude a new friendship and alliance treaty with Mao after he defeated Chiang. But there was still a lot of tension between the two leaders and resentment by Mao for Stalin's less than enthusiastic help during the civil war in China.
The Communists controlled mainland China while the Nationalists held a rump state on the island of Taiwan. The Soviet Union soon after recognized Mao's People's Republic of China, which it regarded as a new ally. The People's Republic claimed Taiwan, though it had never held authority there.
Diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and China reached a high point with the signing of the 1950 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance. Both countries provided military support to a new friendly state in North Korea. After various Korean border conflicts, war broke out with U.S.-allied South Korea in 1950, starting the Korean War.
North Korea
Contrary to America's policy which restrained armament (limited equipment was provided for infantry and police forces) to South Korea, Stalin extensively armed Kim Il Sung's North Korean army and air forces with military equipment (to include T-34/85 tanks) and "advisors" far in excess of those required for defensive purposes) in order to facilitate Kim's (a former Soviet Officer) aim of conquering the rest of the Korean peninsula.
The North Korean Army struck in the pre-dawn hours of Sunday, 25 June 1950, crossing the 38th parallel behind a firestorm of artillery, beginning their invasion of South Korea.[223] During the Korean War, Soviet pilots flew Soviet aircraft from Chinese bases against United Nations aircraft defending South Korea. Post-Cold war research in Soviet Archives has revealed that the Korean War was begun by Kim Il-sung with the express permission of Stalin, though this is disputed by North Korea.[citation needed]
Israel
Stalin originally supported the creation of Israel in 1948. The USSR was one of the first nations to recognize the new country.[224] Golda Meir came to Moscow as the first Israeli Ambassador to the USSR that year. However, after providing war materiel for Israel through Czechoslovakia, he later changed his mind and came out against Israel.
Falsifiers of History
In 1948, Stalin personally edited and rewrote by hand sections of the cold war book Falsifiers of History.[225] Falsifiers was published in response to the documents made public in Nazi-Soviet Relations, 1939–1941: Documents from the Archives of The German Foreign Office,[226][227] which included the secret protocols of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and other secret German-Soviet relations documents.[226][228] Falsifiers originally appeared as a series of articles in Pravda in February 1948,[227] and was subsequently published in numerous language and distributed worldwide.[229]
The book did not attempt to directly counter or deal with the documents published in Nazi-Soviet Relations[230] and rather, focused upon Western culpability for the outbreak of war in 1939.[229] It argues that "Western powers" aided Nazi rearmament and aggression, including that American bankers and industrialists provided capital for the growth of German war industries, while deliberately encouraging Hitler to expand eastward.[226][229] It depicted the Soviet Union as striving to negotiate a collective security against Hitler, while being thwarted by double-dealing Anglo-French appeasers who, despite appearances, had no intention of a Soviet alliance and were secretly negotiating with Berlin.[229] It casts the Munich agreement, not just as Anglo-French short-sightedness or cowardice, but as a "secret" agreement that was a "a highly important phase in their policy aimed at goading the Hitlerite aggressors against the Soviet Union."[231] The book also included the claim that, during the Pact's operation, Stalin rejected Hitler's offer to share in a division of the world, without mentioning the Soviet offers to join the Axis.[232] Historical studies, official accounts, memoirs and textbooks published in the Soviet Union used that depiction of events until the Soviet Union's dissolution.[232]
Domestic Support
Domestically, Stalin was seen as a great wartime leader who had led the Soviets to victory against the Nazis. His early cooperation with Hitler was forgotten. That cooperation included helping the German Army violate the Treaty of Versailles limitations, with training in the Soviet Union, the notorious Molotov-von Ribbentrop treaty which partitioned Poland giving the Soviet Union what is now Belarus and granted the Soviet Union a free hand in Finland, Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia, and Soviet trade with Hitler to counteract the expected French and British trade blockades.
By the end of the 1940s, Russian patriotism increased due to successful propaganda efforts. For instance, some inventions and scientific discoveries were claimed by Soviet propaganda. Examples include the boiler, reclaimed by father and son Cherepanovs; the electric light, by Yablochkov and Lodygin; the radio, by Popov; and the airplane, by Mozhaysky. Stalin's internal repressive policies continued (including in newly acquired territories), but never reached the extremes of the 1930s, in part because the smarter party functionaries had learned caution.
"Doctors' plot"
Main article: Doctors' plot
The "Doctors' plot" was a plot outlined by Stalin and Soviet officials in 1952 and 1953 whereby several doctors (over half of whom were Jewish) allegedly attempted to kill Soviet officials.[233] The prevailing opinion of many scholars outside the Soviet Union is that Stalin intended to use the resulting doctors' trial to launch a massive party purge.[234] The plot is also viewed by many historians as an antisemitic provocation.[233] It followed on the heels of the 1952 show trials of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee[235] and the secret execution of thirteen members on Stalin's orders in the Night of the Murdered Poets.[236]
Thereafter, in a December Politburo session, Stalin announced that "Every Jewish nationalist is the agent of the American intelligence service. Jewish nationalists think that their nation was saved by the United States (there you can become rich, bourgeois, etc.). They think they're indebted to the Americans. Among doctors, there are many Jewish nationalists."[237] To mobilize the Soviet people for his campaign, Stalin ordered TASS and Pravda to issue stories along with Stalin's alleged uncovering of a "Doctors Plot" to assassinate top Soviet leaders,[238][239] including Stalin, in order to set the stage for show trials.[240]
The next month, Pravda published stories with text regarding the purported "Jewish bourgeois-nationalist" plotters.[241] Kruschev wrote that Stalin hinted him to incite anti-Semitism in the Ukraine, telling him that "the good workers at the factory should be given clubs so they can beat the hell out of those Jews."[242][243] Stalin also ordered falsely accused physicians to be tortured "to death".[244] Regarding the origins of the plot, people who knew Stalin, such as Kruschev, suggest that Stalin had long harbored negative sentiments toward Jews,[233][245][246] and anti-Semitic trends in the Kremlin's policies were further fueled by the exile of Leon Trotsky.[233][247] In 1946, Stalin allegedly said privately that "every Jew is a potential spy."[233][248] At the end of January 1953, Stalin's personal physician Miron Vovsi (cousin of Solomon Mikhoels, who was assassinated in 1948 at the orders of Stalin)[236] was arrested within the frame of the plot. Vovsi was released by Beria after Stalin's death in 1953, as was his son-in-law, the composer Mieczyslaw Weinberg.
Some historians have argued that Stalin was also planning to send millions of Jews to four large newly built labor camps in Western Russia[240][249] using a "Deportation Commission"[250][251][252] that would purportedly act to save Soviet Jews from an engraged Soviet population after the Doctors Plot trials.[250][253][254] Others argue that any charge of an alleged mass deportation lacks specific documentary evidence.[239] Regardless of whether a plot to deport Jews was planned, in his "Secret Speech" in 1956, Soviet Premier Nikita Kruschev stated that the Doctors Plot was "fabricated ... set up by Stalin", that Stalin told the judge to beat confessions from the defendants[255] and had told Politburo members "You are blind like young kittens. What will happen without me? The country will perish because you do not know how to recognize enemies."[255]
Death and aftermath
On the early morning hours of 1 March 1953, after an all-night dinner and a movie[256] Stalin arrived at his Kuntsevo residence some 15 km west of Moscow centre with interior minister Lavrentiy Beria and future premiers Georgy Malenkov, Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev where he retired to his bedroom to sleep. At dawn, Stalin did not emerge from his room, having probably suffered a stroke that paralyzed the right side of his body.
Stalin's Grave by the Kremlin Wall Necropolis
Although his guards thought that it was odd for him not to rise at his usual time, they were under strict orders not to disturb him and left him alone the entire day. At around 10 p.m. he was discovered by Peter Lozgachev, the Deputy Commandant of Kuntsevo, who entered his bedroom to check up on him and recalled a horrifying scene of Stalin lying on the floor of his room wearing pyjama bottoms and an undershirt with his clothes soaked in stale urine. A frightened Lozgachev asked Stalin what happened to him, but all he could get out of the Generalissimo was unintelligible responses that sounded like "Dzhh." Lozgachez frantically called a few party officials asking them to send good doctors.[257] Lavrentiy Beria was informed and arrived a few hours afterwards, and the doctors only arrived in the early morning of 2 March in which they changed his bedclothes and tended to him. The bedridden Stalin died four days later, on 5 March 1953,[2] at the age of 74, and was embalmed on 9 March. Officially, the cause of death was listed as a cerebral hemorrhage. His body was preserved in Lenin's Mausoleum until 31 October 1961, when his body was removed from the Mausoleum and buried next to the Kremlin walls as part of the process of de-Stalinization.
It has been suggested that Stalin was assassinated. The ex-Communist exile Avtorkhanov argued this point as early as 1975. The political memoirs of Vyacheslav Molotov, published in 1993, claimed that Beria had boasted to Molotov that he poisoned Stalin: "I took him out."
Khrushchev wrote in his memoirs that Beria had, immediately after the stroke, gone about "spewing hatred against [Stalin] and mocking him", and then, when Stalin showed signs of consciousness, dropped to his knees and kissed his hand. When Stalin fell unconscious again, Beria immediately stood and spat.[citation needed]
Later analysis of death
In 2003, a joint group of Russian and American historians announced their view that Stalin ingested warfarin, a powerful rat poison that inhibits coagulation of the blood and which predisposes the victim to hemorrhagic stroke (cerebral hemorrhage). Since it is flavorless, warfarin is a plausible weapon of murder. The facts surrounding Stalin's death will probably never be known with certainty.[258]
His demise arrived at a convenient time for Lavrenty Beria and others, who feared being swept away in yet another purge. It is believed[who?] that Stalin felt Beria's power was too great and threatened his own. According to Molotov's memoirs, Beria claimed to have poisoned Stalin, saying, "I took him out." Whether Beria or anyone else was directly responsible for Stalin's death, it is true that the Politburo did not summon medical attention for Stalin for more than a day after he was found.[259]
Reaction by successors
Grutas Park is home to a monument of Stalin, originally set up in Vilnius.
Monument to Stalin stood in Gori, Georgia until 2010 when it was demolished and moved to the Museum of Soviet Occupation.
The harshness with which Soviet affairs were conducted during Stalin's rule was subsequently repudiated by his successors in the Communist Party leadership, most notably by Nikita Khrushchev's repudiation of Stalinism in February 1956. In his "Secret Speech", On the Personality Cult and its Consequences, delivered to a closed session of the 20th Party Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Khrushchev denounced Stalin for his cult of personality, and his regime for "violation of Leninist norms of legality".
Views on Stalin in Russian Federation
Results of a controversial poll taken in 2006 stated that over thirty-five percent of Russians would vote for Stalin if he were still alive.[260][261] Fewer than a third of all Russians regarded Stalin as a murderous tyrant;[262] however, a Russian court in 2009, ruling on a suit by Stalin's grandson, Yevgeny Dzhugashvili, against the newspaper, Novaya Gazeta, ruled that referring to Stalin as a "bloodthirsty cannibal" was not libel.[263] In a July 2007 poll 54 percent of the Russian youth agreed that Stalin did more good than bad while 46 percent (of them) disagreed that Stalin was a cruel tyrant. Half of the respondents, aged from 16 to 19, agreed Stalin was a wise leader.[264]
In December 2008 Stalin was voted third in the nationwide television project Name of Russia (narrowly behind 13th century prince Alexander Nevsky and Pyotr Stolypin, one of Nicholas II's prime ministers), leading to accusations from Communist Party of the Russian Federation that the poll had been rigged in order to prevent him or Lenin being given first place.[265]
On 3 July 2009, Russia's delegates walked out of an Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe session to demonstrate their objections to a resolution for a remembrance day for the victims of both Nazism and Stalinism.[266] Only eight out of 385 assembly members voted against the resolution.[266]
In a Kremlin video blog posted on October 29, 2009, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev denounced the efforts of people seeking to rehabilitate Stalin's image. He said the mass extermination during the Stalin era cannot be justified.[267]
Personal life
Origin of name, nicknames and pseudonyms
Stalin's original Georgian is transliterated as "Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili" (Georgian: იოსებ ბესრიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი). The Russian transliteration of his name (Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили) is in turn transliterated to English as "Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili". Like other Bolsheviks, he became commonly known by one of his revolutionary noms de guerre, of which "Stalin" was only the last. Prior nicknames included "Koba", "Soselo", "Ivanov" and many others.[268]
Stalin is believed to have started using the name "K. Stalin" sometime in 1912 as a pen name.
During Stalin's reign his nicknames included:
"Uncle Joe", by western media, during and after the World War II.[269][270]
"Kremlin Highlander" (Russian: кремлевский горец), in reference his Caucasus Mountains origin, notably by Osip Mandelstam in his Stalin Epigram.
"Little Father of the Peoples" or "Papa Stalin". A common nickname in the USSR during his time in power, as he was portrayed as the paternal figure of the Revolution.[271][272][273][274]
Appearance
While photographs and portraits portray Stalin as physically massive and majestic (he had several painters shot who did not depict him "right"),[275] he was only five feet four inches high (160 cm).[275] (President Harry S. Truman, who stood only five feet nine inches himself, described Stalin as "a little squirt".[276]) His mustached face was fleshy and pock-marked, and his black hair later turned grey and thinned out. After a carriage accident in his youth, his left arm was shortened and stiffened at the elbow, while his right hand was thinner than his left and frequently hidden.[275] His dental health also deteriorated as he got older—when he died, he only had three of his own teeth remaining.[277] He could be charming and polite, mainly towards visiting statesmen,[275] but was generally coarse, rude, and abusive.[278] In movies, Stalin was often played by Mikheil Gelovani and, less frequently, by Aleksei Dikiy.
Marriages and family
Ekaterina "Kato" Svanidze, Stalin's first wife
Stalin and Nadezhda Alliluyeva
Stalin's son Yakov, whom he had with his first wife Ekaterina Svanidze, shot himself because of Stalin's harshness toward him, but survived. After this, Stalin said "He can't even shoot straight".[279] Yakov served in the Red Army during World War II and was captured by the Germans. They offered to exchange him for Field Marshal Friedrich Paulus, who had surrendered after Stalingrad, but Stalin turned the offer down, stating "You have in your hands not only my son Yakov but millions of my sons. Either you free them all or my son will share their fate."[280] Afterwards, Yakov is said to have committed suicide, running into an electric fence in Sachsenhausen concentration camp, where he was being held.[281] Yakov had a son Yevgeny, who is recently noted for defending his grandfather's legacy in Russian courts.
Stalin had a son, Vasiliy, and a daughter, Svetlana, with his second wife Nadezhda Alliluyeva. She died in 1932, officially of illness. She may have committed suicide by shooting herself after a quarrel with Stalin, leaving a suicide note which according to their daughter was "partly personal, partly political".[282] According to A&E Biography, there is also a belief among some Russians that Stalin himself murdered his wife after the quarrel, which apparently took place at a dinner in which Stalin tauntingly flicked cigarettes across the table at her. Historians also claim her death ultimately "severed his link from reality."[283]
Vasiliy rose through the ranks of the Soviet air force, officially dying of alcoholism in 1962; however, this is still in question. He distinguished himself in World War II as a capable airman. Svetlana emigrated to the United States in 1967. Stalin may have married a third wife, Rosa Kaganovich, the sister of Lazar Kaganovich.[284] In March 2001 Russian Independent Television NTV interviewed a previously unknown grandson living in Novokuznetsk, Yuri Davydov, who stated that his father had told him of his lineage, but, was told to keep quiet because of the campaign against Stalin's cult of personality.
Beside his suite in the Kremlin, Stalin had numerous domiciles. In 1919 he started with a country house near Usovo, he added dachas at Zuvalova and Kuntsevo (Blizhny dacha built by Miron Merzhanov). Before WWII he added the Lipki estate and Semyonovskaya, and had at least four dachas in the south by 1937, including one near Sochi. A luxury villa near Gagri was given to him by Beria. In Abkhazia he maintained a mountain retreat. After the war he added dachas at Novy Alon, near Sukhumi, in the Valdai Hills, and at Lake Mitsa. Another estate was near Zelyony Myss on the Black Sea. All these dachas, estates, and palaces were staffed, well furnished and equipped, kept safe by security forces, and were mainly used privately, rarely for diplomatic purposes.[285] Between places Stalin would travel by car or train, never by air; he flew only once when attending the 1943 Tehran conference.
Habits
Stalin enjoyed heavy drinking, but could keep it under control.[286] He would also often force those around him to join in the drinking.[286] Stalin preferred Georgian wine over Russian vodka, but usually ate traditional Russian food.[286]
Khrushchev reports in his memoirs that Stalin was fond of American cowboy movies.[287] He would often sleep until evening in his dacha, and after waking up summon high-ranking Soviet politicians to watch foreign movies with him in the Kremlin movie theater.[287] The movies, being in foreign languages, were given a running translation.[287] After the movie had ended, Stalin often invited the audience for dinner, even though the clock was usually past midnight.[287]
Religious beliefs and policies
Stalin had a complex relationship with religious institutions in the Soviet Union.[288] One story reports that while he studied at a seminary, he became a closet atheist.[289] However, this story fails on several obvious accounts, including Stalin's remaining religious, even pious, for some years longer.[290] One account states that Stalin's reversal on bans against the church during World War II followed a sign that he believed he received from heaven.[291]
Historian Edvard Radzinsky used recently discovered secret archives and noted a story that changed Stalin's attitude toward religion.[291] The story in which Ilya, Metropolitan of the Lebanon Mountains, claimed to receive a sign from heaven that "The churches and monasteries must be reopened throughout the country. Priests must be brought back from imprisonment, Leningrad must not be surrendered, but the sacred icon of Our Lady of Kazan should be carried around the city boundary, taken on to Moscow, where a service should be held, and thence to Stalingrad Tsaritsyn."[291]
Shortly thereafter, Stalin's attitude changed and "Whatever the reason, after his mysterious retreat, he began making his peace with God. Something happened which no historian has yet written about. On his orders many priests were brought back to the camps. In Leningrad, besieged by the Germans and gradually dying of hunger, the inhabitants were astounded, and uplifted, to see wonder-working icon Our Lady of Kazan brought out into the streets and borne in procession."[291] Radzinsky asked, "Had he seen the light? Had fear made him run to his Father? Had the Marxist God-Man simply decided to exploit belief in God? Or was it all of these things at once?."[291]
During the Second World War Stalin reopened the Churches. One reason could have been to motivate the majority of the population who had Christian beliefs. The reasoning behind this is that by changing the official policy of the party and the state towards religion, the Church and its clergymen could be to his disposal in mobilizing the war effort. On 4 September 1943, Stalin invited Metropolitan Sergius, Metropolitan Alexy and Metropolitan Nikolay to the Kremlin and proposed to reestablish the Moscow Patriarchate, which had been suspended since 1925, and elect the Patriarch. On 8 September 1943, Metropolitan Sergius was elected Patriarch.
Another reason that may have motivated this greater tolerance after the war, was the great failure of the persecutions of the 1920s and 1930s to actually achieve the intended result of eliminating religion.
The CPSU Central Committee continued to promote atheism and the elimination of religion during the remainder of Stalin's lifetime after the 1943 concordat.[292] Stalin's greater tolerance for religion after 1943 was limited, and persecutions resumed at the end of the war, although on a lesser scale than had been existent in the 1930s. For these reasons it is unlikely that Stalin had changed his atheistic rejection of religion during this last portion of his lifetime.
Joseph Stalin Vissarionovich (18 Desember 1878[2] - 5 Maret 1953) adalah seorang Soviet politikus dan kepala negara yang menjabat sebagai Sekretaris Jenderal pertama dari Partai Komunis Uni Soviet's Komite Pusat dari 1922 sampai kematiannya pada tahun 1953. Setelah kematian Vladimir Lenin pada tahun 1924, Stalin naik untuk menjadi pemimpin Uni Soviet, yang ia memerintah sebagai diktator.
Stalin meluncurkan ekonomi komando, menggantikan Kebijakan Ekonomi Baru tahun 1920-an dengan Rencana Lima Tahun dan meluncurkan periode cepat industrialisasi dan kolektivisasi ekonomi. Pergolakan di sektor pertanian terganggu produksi pangan, mengakibatkan kelaparan luas, termasuk bencana kelaparan Soviet 1932-1933 (dikenal di Ukraina sebagai Holodomor).[3]
Selama akhir 1930-an, Stalin meluncurkan Pembersihan Besar (juga dikenal sebagai "Teror Besar"), sebuah kampanye untuk membersihkan Partai Komunis dari orang yang dituduh sabotase, terorisme, atau pengkhianatan, ia diperluas ke militer lain sektor dan Soviet masyarakat. Dalam prakteknya, pembersihan yang sembarangan. Target sering dieksekusi, dipenjara di kamp kerja paksa Gulag atau diasingkan. Pada tahun-tahun yang diikuti, jutaan anggota etnis minoritas juga dideportasi.[4][5]
Pada tahun 1939, setelah gagal upaya untuk membangun sistem keamanan kolektif di Eropa,[rujukan?][klarifikasi diperlukan] Stalin menandatangani pakta non-agresi dengan Nazi Jerman, diikuti oleh invasi Soviet Polandia, Finlandia, yang Baltik, Bessarabia dan utara Bukovina. Setelah Jerman melanggar perjanjian itu pada tahun 1941, Uni Soviet bergabung dengan Sekutu untuk memainkan peran utama dalam kekalahan Axis, pada biaya angka kematian terbesar untuk setiap negara dalam perang (sebagian besar disebabkan oleh kematian massal warga sipil di wilayah diduduki oleh Nazi). Setelah perang, Stalin diinstal pemerintah komunis tunduk di kebanyakan negara di Eropa Timur, membentuk blok Timur, di balik apa yang disebut sebagai "Tirai Besi"dari pemerintahan Soviet selama Perang Dingin.
Stalin dipupuk suatu kultus kepribadian sekitar dirinya, namun setelah kematiannya, penerusnya, Nikita Khrushchev, mencela warisannya dan melaju proses de-Stalinisasi Uni Soviet.[6]
Isi [hide]
1 Awal kehidupan
2 Revolusi, Perang Sipil dan Perang Polandia-Soviet
2.1 Peran selama Revolusi Rusia 1917
2.2 Peran dalam Perang Saudara Rusia, 1917-1919
2.3 Peran dalam Perang Soviet-Polandia, 1919-1921
3 Naik ke kekuasaan
4 Perubahan masyarakat Soviet, 1927-1939
4.1 Soviet memperkuat layanan rahasia dan intelijen
4.2 Cult kepribadian
4.3 pembersihan dan deportasi
4.4 Kolektivisasi
4.5 kelaparan
4.6 Industrialisasi
4.7 Ilmu
4.8 Jasa pelayanan sosial
4.9 Budaya
4.10 Agama
4.11 teori
5 Menghitung jumlah korban
6 Perang Dunia II, 1939-1945
6.1 Pakta dengan Hitler
6.2 Menerapkan pembagian Eropa Timur dan invasi lainnya
6.3 Hitler istirahat pakta
6.4 Soviet menghentikan Jerman
6,5 Soviet push ke Jerman
6.6 Final kemenangan
6.7 Nobel Perdamaian nominasi
6.8 dipertanyakan taktik
6.9 Sekutu konferensi pada pasca-perang Eropa
7 Pasca-perang era, 1945-1953
7.1 Para Tirai Besi dan Blok Timur
7.2 Hubungan Sino-Soviet
7.3 Korea Utara
7.4 Israel
7,5 Falsifiers Sejarah
7.6 Domestik Dukungan
7.7 "Dokter 'plot"
8 Kematian dan sesudahnya
8.1 Kemudian analisis kematian
8.2 Reaksi oleh para penerusnya
8.3 Pandangan tentang Stalin di Federasi Rusia
9 Kehidupan pribadi
9.1 Asal nama, julukan dan samaran
9.2 Penampilan
9.3 Perkawinan dan keluarga
9.4 Kebiasaan
9.5 Agama keyakinan dan kebijakan
10 Hipotesis, rumor dan kesalahpahaman tentang Stalin
11 Pekerjaan
12 Lihat juga
13 Referensi
13.1 Catatan
13.2 Bibliografi
13.3 Bacaan lebih lanjut
14 Pranala luar
Kehidupan awal
Artikel utama: Awal kehidupan Joseph Stalin
Young Stalin, sekitar tahun 1894, usia 16
Stalin lahir Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili (Georgia: იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი) pada tanggal 18 Desember 1878[2] ke tukang sepatu di kota Gori, Georgia. Pada usia tujuh tahun, ia dikontrak cacar, yang permanen bekas luka wajahnya. Pada pukul sepuluh, ia mulai bersekolah gereja dimana anak-anak Georgia terpaksa berbahasa Rusia. Pada usia dua belas tahun, kecelakaan kereta yang ditarik kuda tinggal dua lengan kirinya rusak secara permanen. Pada enam belas, ia menerima beasiswa ke Ortodoks Georgia seminari, di mana ia memberontak melawan imperialis dan ketertiban agama. Meskipun ia tampil baik di sana, ia dikeluarkan pada tahun 1899 setelah absen ujian akhir. seminari's catatan menyarankan ia tidak mampu untuk membayar biaya pendidikan itu.[7]
Kartu informasi mengenai "IV Stalin", dari file-file dari polisi rahasia Tsar di Saint Petersburg, 1911[8]
Tak lama setelah meninggalkan seminari itu, Stalin menemukan tulisan-tulisan Vladimir Lenin dan memutuskan untuk menjadi seorang revolusioner Marxis, Lenin akhirnya bergabung dengan Bolshevik pada tahun 1903. Setelah ditandai dengan Okhranka (polisi rahasia Tsar) untuk aktivitasnya, ia menjadi full-time revolusioner dan penjahat. Ia menjadi salah satu Bolshevikkoperasi kepala 'di Kaukasus, pengorganisasian paramiliter, menghasut pemogokan, menyebarkan propaganda dan meningkatkan uang melalui perampokan bank, tebusan penculikan dan pemerasan.
Pada musim panas tahun 1906, Stalin menikah Ekaterina Svanidze, yang kemudian melahirkan anak pertama Stalin, Yakov. Stalin sementara mengundurkan diri dari partai atas larangan perampokan bank, mendalangi serangan besar di pengiriman bank yang mengakibatkan kematian 40 orang[9] dan kemudian melarikan diri ke Baku, di mana Ekaterina meninggal karena tifus. Di Baku, Stalin terorganisir Muslim Azerbaijan dan Persia dalam kegiatan partisan, termasuk pembunuhan banyak "Ratusan Hitam"pendukung sayap kanan Tsar, dan melakukan raket perlindungan, tebusan penculikan, pemalsuan operasi dan perampokan.
Stalin ditangkap dan dikirim ke Siberia tujuh kali, tetapi melarikan diri sebagian besar orang buangan. Setelah dibebaskan dari satu pengasingan tersebut, pada bulan April 1912 di Saint Petersburg, Stalin menciptakan koran Pravda dari koran partai yang ada. Dia akhirnya mengadopsi nama "Stalin", dari kata Rusia untuk baja, yang digunakan sebagai alias dan nama pena dalam menerbitkan karya-karyanya.
Selama pengasingan terakhirnya, Stalin diwajibkan oleh tentara Rusia untuk bertarung di Perang Dunia I, tetapi dianggap tidak layak untuk pelayanan karena lengan kirinya rusak.[10]
Revolusi, Perang Saudara, dan Perang Polandia-Soviet
Artikel utama: Joseph Stalin dalam Revolusi Rusia, Perang Saudara Rusia, dan Perang Polandia-Soviet
Peran selama Revolusi Rusia 1917
Setelah kembali ke Saint Petersburg dari pengasingan, Stalin terguling Vyacheslav Molotov dan Alexander Shlyapnikov sebagai editor Pravda. Ia kemudian mengambil posisi mendukung mendukung Alexander Kerensky's pemerintah sementara. Namun, setelah Lenin menang di Partai 1917 konferensi April, Stalin dan Pravda didukung menggulingkan pemerintah sementara. Pada konferensi ini, Stalin terpilih untuk Komite Sentral Bolshevik. Setelah Lenin berpartisipasi dalam sebuah revolusi berusaha, Stalin membantu Lenin menghindari penangkapan dan, untuk menghindari pertumpahan darah, memerintahkan Bolshevik terkepung untuk menyerah.[8]
Dia menyelundupkan Lenin ke Finlandia dan diasumsikan kepemimpinan Bolshevik.[8] Setelah Bolshevik dipenjara dibebaskan untuk membantu mempertahankan Saint Petersburg, pada bulan Oktober 1917, Komite Sentral Bolshevik memberikan suara mendukung sebuah pemberontakan.[8] Pada tanggal 7 November, dari yang Smolny Institute, Stalin, Lenin dan sisanya dari Komite Sentral terkoordinasi kudeta terhadap pemerintah Kerensky-yang disebut Revolusi Oktober. Kerensky meninggalkan modal untuk rally pasukan Imperial di depan Jerman. 8 November, Istana Musim Dingin telah menyerbu dan Kerensky Kabinet telah ditangkap.
Peran dalam Perang Saudara Rusia, 1917-1919
Joseph Stalin, Vladimir Lenin, dan Mikhail Kalinin pertemuan di tahun 1919. Ketiga dari mereka "Bolshevik Lama"-anggota Bolshevik partai sebelum Revolusi Rusia tahun 1917.
Setelah merebut Petrograd, Stalin diangkat Rakyat Commissar untuk 'Urusan kebangsaan.[11] Setelah itu, perang saudara pecah di Rusia, pitting Lenin Red Army terhadap Tentara Putih, sebuah aliansi longgar kekuatan anti-Bolshevik. Lenin membentuk lima anggota Politbiro yang termasuk Stalin dan Trotsky. Pada bulan Mei 1918, Lenin Stalin dikirim ke kota Tsaritsyn. Melalui sekutu barunya, Kliment Voroshilov dan Semyon Budyonny, Stalin dikenakan pengaruhnya di militer.[11]
Stalin menantang banyak keputusan Trotsky, memerintahkan pembunuhan Tsar banyak mantan perwira di Tentara Merah dan kontra-revolusioner[11][12] dan desa-desa dibakar dalam rangka untuk mengintimidasi kaum tani menjadi tunduk dan mencegah serangan bandit pada pengiriman makanan.[11] Pada bulan Mei 1919, dalam rangka membendung desersi massa di bagian depan Barat, Stalin desertir dan murtad publik dijalankan sebagai pengkhianat.[11]
Peran dalam Perang Polandia-Soviet, 1919-1921
Setelah mereka Perang Saudara Rusia kemenangan, kaum Bolshevik bergerak untuk mendirikan sebuah lingkup pengaruh di Eropa Tengah, dimulai dengan apa yang menjadi Perang Polandia-Soviet. Sebagai komandan dari front selatan,[11] Stalin bertekad untuk mengambil-menguasai kota Polandia Lviv. Ini bertentangan dengan strategi umum yang ditetapkan oleh Lenin dan Trotsky, yang difokuskan pada penangkapan Warsawa utara lebih lanjut.
Trotskys 'pasukan terlibat dengan orang-orang dari komandan Polandia Władysław Sikorski pada Pertempuran Warsawa, tetapi Stalin menolak untuk mengarahkan pasukannya dari Lviv untuk membantu.[11] Akibatnya, pertempuran untuk kedua Lviv dan Warsawa hilang, yang Stalin dipersalahkan . Stalin kembali ke Moskow pada Agustus 1920, di mana ia membela dirinya sendiri dan mengundurkan diri komisi militer.[11] Pada Kesembilan Konferensi Partai pada tanggal 22 September, Trotsky secara terbuka mengkritik's perilaku Stalin.[11]
Kemudian karirnya, Stalin adalah untuk mengkompensasi bencana 1920.[13] Ia akan menjamin kematian Trotsky, Lviv aman dalam pakta Nazi-Soviet, melaksanakan veteran Polandia -Soviet Perang Polandia dalam pembantaian Katyn; mendirikan dengan pengambilalihan Soviet di Eropa Timur, dan di Yalta, permintaan yang Lviv akan diserahkan oleh Polandia ke Uni Soviet.[13][14]
Naik ke kekuasaan
Artikel utama: Rise of Joseph Stalin
Stalin memainkan peranan penting dalam rekayasa 1921 invasi Tentara Merah Georgia, berikut ini yang diadopsi khususnya garis keras, kebijakan sentralistis terhadap Soviet Georgia, yang termasuk Affair Georgia tahun 1922 dan represi lainnya.[15][16] Hal ini menciptakan sebuah celah dengan Lenin, yang percaya bahwa semua negara Soviet harus berdiri sama.
Lenin masih dianggap Stalin sebagai sekutu setia, dan ketika ia mendapat terperosok dalam percekcokan dengan Trotsky dan politisi lain, ia memutuskan untuk memberikan lebih banyak kekuatan Stalin. Dengan bantuan Kamenev, Lenin Stalin diangkat sebagai Sekretaris Jenderal pada tahun 1922.[11] Posting ini memungkinkan Stalin untuk menunjuk banyak sekutu untuk posisi pemerintah.
Lenin menderita stroke pada 1922, memaksa dia ke semi-pensiun di Gorki. Stalin sering mengunjunginya, bertindak sebagai perantara dengan dunia luar.[11] Pasangan ini bertengkar dan hubungan mereka memburuk.[11] Lenin didikte semakin meremehkan catatan tentang Stalin pada apa yang akan menjadi wasiat. Dia mengkritik sikap kasar's Stalin, ambisi yang berlebihan, kekuasaan dan politik, dan menyarankan bahwa Stalin harus dihapus dari posisi Sekretaris Jenderal.[11] Selama semi-Lenin pensiun itu, Stalin menjalin kemitraan dengan Kamenev dan Grigory Zinoviev terhadap Trotsky. Sekutu ini dicegah Lenin Perjanjian dari yang diturunkan kepada kedua belas Partai Kongres pada April 1923.[11]
Lenin meninggal karena serangan jantung pada tanggal 21 Januari 1924. Sekali lagi, Kamenev dan Zinoviev membantu untuk menjaga's Perjanjian Lenin dari go publik. Setelah itu,'s sengketa Stalin dengan Kamenev dan Zinoviev diintensifkan. Trotsky, Kamenev dan Zinoviev tumbuh semakin terisolasi, dan akhirnya dikeluarkan dari Komite Sentral dan kemudian dari Partai itu sendiri.[11] Kamenev dan Zinoviev kemudian diterima kembali, tapi Trotsky diasingkan dari Uni Soviet.
Stalin mendorong industrialisasi yang lebih cepat dan kontrol pusat ekonomi, melanggar Lenin Kebijakan Ekonomi Baru. Pada akhir 1927, kekurangan penting dalam persediaan gandum diminta Stalin untuk mendorong kolektivisasi pertanian dan ketertiban kejang dari menimbun gandum dari kulak petani.[11][12] Bukharin dan Premier Rykov menyerang kebijakan-kebijakan ini dan menganjurkan kembali ke NEP, tetapi sisa Politbiro sisi dengan Stalin dan dihapus Bukharin dari Politbiro pada bulan November 1929. Rykov dipecat pada tahun berikutnya, dan digantikan oleh Vyacheslav Molotov di's rekomendasi Stalin.
Pada bulan Desember 1934, yang populer Sergei Kirov dibunuh. Stalin menyalahkan's pembunuhan Kirov pada konspirasi besar penyabot dan Trotskyites. Dia melancarkan pembersihan besar-besaran terhadap musuh-musuh internal, menempatkan mereka pada dicurangi percobaan menunjukkan dan kemudian setelah mereka dieksekusi atau dipenjarakan di gulag di Siberia. Di antara korban adalah musuh-musuh lama, termasuk Bukharin, Rykov, Kamenev dan Zinoviev. Stalin membuat setia Nikolai Yezhov kepala polisi rahasia, NKVD, dan menyuruhnya membersihkan NKVD dari Bolshevik veteran. Dengan tidak ada lawan serius yang tersisa di kekuasaan, Stalin mengakhiri pembersihan pada tahun 1938. Yezhov diadakan untuk disalahkan atas ekses dari Teror Besar, dan diberhentikan dan kemudian dieksekusi.
Perubahan masyarakat Soviet, 1927-1939
Memperkuat layanan rahasia Soviet dan kecerdasan
Artikel utama: Kronologis lembaga polisi rahasia Soviet
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Stalin sangat meningkatkan cakupan dan kekuatan polisi rahasia negara dan badan-badan intelijen. Di bawah membimbing tangannya, pasukan intelijen Soviet mulai mendirikan jaringan intelijen di sebagian besar negara-negara utama dunia, termasuk Jerman (yang terkenal Rote Kappelle cincin mata-mata), Inggris, Perancis, Jepang, dan Amerika Serikat. Stalin tidak melihat perbedaan antara spionase, komunis tindakan propaganda politik, dan negara-kekerasan sanksi, dan ia mulai mengintegrasikan semua kegiatan dalam NKVD. Stalin memanfaatkan besar dari Komunis Internasional gerakan untuk menyusup agen dan untuk memastikan bahwa partai komunis asing tetap pro-Soviet dan pro-Stalin.
Salah satu contoh terbaik dari kemampuan Stalin untuk mengintegrasikan polisi rahasia dan spionase asing datang pada 1940, ketika ia memberikan persetujuan untuk polisi rahasia untuk memiliki Leon Trotsky dibunuh di Meksiko.[17]
Cult kepribadian
Stalin menciptakan sebuah kultus pribadi di Uni Soviet sekitar kedua dirinya dan Lenin. kultus Banyak kepribadian dalam sejarah telah sering diukur dan dibandingkan dengan Nya. Banyak kota-kota, desa dan kota diberi nama setelah pemimpin Uni Soviet (lihat Daftar tempat bernama setelah Stalin) dan Hadiah Stalin dan Stalin Peace Prize diberi nama untuk menghormatinya. Dia menerima gelar muluk-muluk (misalnya "dirigen Sains, "" Bapak Bangsa, "" Brilliant Genius Kemanusiaan, "" Great Arsitek komunisme, "" Gardener Kebahagiaan Manusia, "dan lain-lain), dan membantu menulis ulang sejarah Soviet untuk menyediakan dirinya yang signifikan peran yang lebih dalam revolusi. Pada saat yang sama, menurut Khrushchev, dia bersikeras bahwa dia akan dikenang "karakteristik kesantunan luar biasa yang benar-benar orang-orang hebat." Patung Stalin menggambarkan dia di ketinggian dan membangun mendekati Alexander III, sedangkan bukti foto menunjukkan dia adalah antara 5 ft 5 in dan 5 ft 6 in (165-168 cm).[18]
Trotsky mengkritik kultus kepribadian dibangun di sekitar Stalin. Ini mencapai tingkat baru selama Perang Dunia II, dengan nama Stalin dimasukkan dalam Soviet baru lagu kebangsaan. Stalin menjadi fokus sastra, puisi, musik, lukisan dan film, menunjukkan pengabdian menjilat, mengkredit Stalin dengan dewa-seperti kualitas hampir, dan menyarankan dia seorang diri memenangkan Perang Dunia Kedua. Hal ini bisa diperdebatkan seperti bagaimana Stalin banyak menikmati kultus sekitarnya. Para komunis Finlandia Tuominen catatan bersulang sarkastik diusulkan oleh Stalin pada Tahun Baru Partai pada tahun 1935 di mana ia berkata, "Kamerad inginkan! saya mengusulkan bersulang untuk hidup, kita patriark dan matahari, pembebas bangsa, arsitek [sosialisme ia terguncang off semua appellations diterapkan untuk dia di hari-hari] - Josef Stalin Vissarionovich, dan saya berharap ini adalah pidato pertama dan terakhir dibuat untuk jenius bahwa malam ini ".[19]
Dalam pidato tahun 1956, Nikita Khrushchev memberikan kecaman dari Teman-tindakan Stalin: "Ini adalah tidak diperbolehkan dan asing dengan semangat Marxisme-Leninisme untuk mengangkat satu orang, untuk mengubahnya menjadi superman yang memiliki karakteristik supernatural mirip dengan yang dari Tuhan."[6]
Pembersihan dan deportasi
Pembersihan
Artikel utama: Great Purge
Waktu: Beria's Januari 1940 surat kepada Stalin, meminta izin untuk mengeksekusi 346 "musuh Partai Komunis Uni Soviet dan dari pemerintah Soviet"yang melakukan" kontra-revolusioner, kanan Trotskyis merencanakan dan memata-matai kegiatan "
Tengah: Stalin tulisan tangan: "за" (dukungan).
Kanan: Politbiro's Keputusan ditandatangani oleh Sekretaris Stalin
Stalin, sebagai kepala Politbiro, listrik di dekat-mutlak konsolidasi tahun 1930-an dengan Pembersihan Besar partai, dibenarkan sebagai upaya untuk mengusir 'oportunis' dan '-revolusioner penyusup counter'.[20][21] Mereka sasaran membersihkan sering diusir dari partai, lebih parah namun tindakan berkisar dari pembuangan ke Gulag kamp kerja paksa, untuk eksekusi setelah uji coba yang diselenggarakan oleh troikas NKVD.[20][22][23]
Pada 1930, Stalin tampaknya menjadi semakin khawatir tentang semakin populernya Sergei Kirov. Pada 1934 Partai Kongres dimana memilih Komite Sentral baru diadakan, Kirov menerima hanya tiga suara negatif, yang paling kecil dari setiap calon, sedangkan Stalin menerima 1.108 suara negatif.[24] Setelah pembunuhan Kirov, yang mungkin telah diatur oleh Stalin, Stalin menciptakan skema rinci untuk melibatkan pemimpin oposisi dalam pembunuhan, termasuk Trotsky, Kamenev dan Zinoviev.[25] The penyidikan dan pengadilan diperluas.[26] Stalin mengesahkan undang-undang baru tentang "organisasi teroris dan tindakan teroris", yang itu harus diselidiki untuk tidak lebih dari sepuluh hari, tanpa penuntutan, pengacara pembela atau banding, diikuti dengan kalimat yang dijalankan "dengan cepat."[27]
Setelah itu, beberapa percobaan yang dikenal sebagai Moskow Ujian diadakan, tetapi prosedur direplikasi di seluruh negeri. Pasal 58 dari kode hukum, daftar dilarang kegiatan anti-Soviet sebagai kejahatan kontra diterapkan dengan cara yang luas.[28] The dalih flimsiest sering cukup untuk seseorang merek sebuah "musuh rakyat", memulai siklus penganiayaan publik dan pelecehan, seringkali melanjutkan ke interogasi, penyiksaan dan deportasi, jika tidak mati. The troika kata Rusia memperoleh arti baru: sebuah disederhanakan, sidang cepat oleh sebuah komite tiga subordinasi untuk NKVD -troika NKVDdengan hukuman dilakukan dalam waktu 24 jam. -[27]
Nikolai Yezhov, pemuda berjalan dengan Stalin di foto atas dari tahun 1930-an, ditembak pada tahun 1940. Setelah kematiannya, Yezhov keluar diedit dari foto dengan sensor Soviet.[29] retouching tersebut adalah kejadian umum selama ini pemerintahan Stalin.
pemimpin militer Banyak yang dihukum karena pengkhianatan, dan skala besar pembersihan Red Army perwira diikuti.[30] Represi peringkat revolusioner banyak sebelumnya tinggi sehingga dan anggota partai menyebabkan Leon Trotsky untuk mengklaim bahwa "sungai darah" dipisahkan rezim Stalin dari Lenin.[31] Pada bulan Agustus 1940, Trotsky dibunuh di Meksiko, di mana ia telah tinggal di pengasingan sejak Januari 1937, ini menghilangkan terakhir itu lawan Stalin antara kepemimpinan Partai mantan.[32] hanya tiga "Old Bolshevik"(Lenin Politbiro) yang tersisa adalah Stalin, Mikhail Kalinin, dan Ketua Sovnarkom Vyacheslav Molotov.
operasi Massa dari NKVD juga ditargetkan "kontingen nasional" (etnis asing) seperti Polandia, suku Jerman, Korea, dll Sebanyak 350.000 (144.000 dari mereka Polandia) ditangkap dan 247.157 (110.000 Polandia) dieksekusi.[12] Banyak orang Amerika yang berimigrasi ke Uni Soviet selama terburuk Depresi Besar itu dijalankan; lainnya dikirim ke kamp-kamp penjara atau gulag.[33] Bersamaan dengan pembersihan, upaya dilakukan untuk menulis ulang sejarah dalam buku teks dan bahan propaganda Soviet lainnya . orang terkenal dieksekusi oleh NKVD telah dihapus dari teks dan foto-foto seolah-olah mereka tidak pernah ada. Secara bertahap, sejarah revolusi berubah untuk cerita tentang dua karakter utama: Lenin dan Stalin.
Dalam terang wahyu dari arsip Soviet, sejarawan kini memperkirakan bahwa hampir 700.000 orang (353.074 pada tahun 1937 dan 328.612 pada 1938) dieksekusi dalam perjalanan teror,[34] dengan massa korban yang sangat banyak yang "biasa" warga Soviet: buruh, petani, ibu rumah tangga, guru, imam, musisi, tentara, pensiunan, balerina, pengemis.[35][36] Beberapa ahli percaya bukti dilepaskan dari arsip Soviet bersahaja, tidak lengkap atau tidak dapat diandalkan.[37][38][39][40][41] Sebagai contoh, Robert Conquest menunjukkan bahwa angka kemungkinan untuk eksekusi selama tahun-tahun Pembersihan Besar tidak 681.692, namun beberapa dua setengah kali lebih tinggi. Ia percaya bahwa KGB menutupi trek dengan memalsukan tanggal dan penyebab kematian korban direhabilitasi.[42]
Stalin secara pribadi ditandatangani 357 pelarangan daftar pada tahun 1937 dan 1938 yang mengutuk eksekusi sekitar 40.000 orang, dan sekitar 90% di antaranya dikonfirmasi telah ditembak.[43] Pada saat itu, saat meninjau salah satu daftar tersebut, Stalin dilaporkan bergumam kepada siapa pun khususnya: "akan mengingat semua ini riff-sampah dalam sepuluh atau dua puluh tahun Tidak ada waktu?'s. Who Siapa yang mengingat nama-nama sekarang dari bangsawan Ivan the Terrible dari? Tidak punya. satu menyingkirkan "[44] Di samping itu, Stalin dikirim kontingen NKVD operatif untuk Mongolia, mendirikan versi Mongolia dari troika NKVD dan melepaskan pembersihan berdarah di mana puluhan ribu orang dieksekusi sebagai 'Spies Jepang. " Mongolia penguasa Khorloogiin Choibalsan diikuti's memimpin Stalin.[45]
Penduduk transfer
Artikel utama: Penduduk transfer di Uni Soviet
Pertemuan di sel penjara, sebuah ilustrasi oleh Eufrosinia Kersnovskaya
Sesaat sebelum, selama dan segera setelah Perang Dunia II, Stalin melakukan serangkaian deportasi pada skala besar yang sangat mempengaruhi peta etnis Uni Soviet. Diperkirakan bahwa antara tahun 1941 dan 1949 hampir 3,3 juta[4] dideportasi ke Siberia dan republik Asia Tengah. Dengan beberapa perkiraan hingga 43% dari populasi dipindahkan meninggal karena penyakit dan kekurangan gizi.[46]
Separatisme, ketahanan terhadap pemerintahan Soviet dan kolaborasi dengan Jerman menyerang dikutip sebagai alasan resmi untuk deportasi, benar atau salah. keadaan individu dari mereka menghabiskan waktu di wilayah yang diduduki Jerman tidak diperiksa.[47] Setelah pendudukan Nazi singkat Kaukasus, seluruh penduduk lima dari masyarakat dataran tinggi kecil dan Tatar Krimea - lebih dari satu juta orang secara total - dideportasi tanpa pemberitahuan atau kesempatan apapun untuk mengambil harta mereka.[47]
Selama ini pemerintahan Stalin kelompok etnis berikut dideportasi sepenuhnya atau sebagian: Ukraina, Polandia, Rumania, Korea, Volga Jerman, Crimean Tatar, Kalmyks, Chechen, Ingush, Balkars, Karachays, Meskhetian Turki, Finlandia, Bulgaria, Yunani, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonians, dan Yahudi. Sejumlah besar kulak, terlepas dari kewarganegaraan mereka, yang dipindahkan ke Siberia dan Asia Tengah. Deportasi terjadi dalam kondisi yang mengerikan, seringkali dengan truk ternak, dan ratusan ribu dideportasi meninggal dalam perjalanan.[4] Mereka yang selamat dipaksa bekerja tanpa bayaran di kamp kerja paksa. Banyak dideportasi meninggal karena kelaparan atau kondisi lainnya.
Menurut perkiraan Soviet resmi, lebih dari 14 juta orang melewati Gulag 1929-1953, dengan 7 sampai 8 lebih juta yang dideportasi dan diasingkan ke daerah-daerah terpencil di Uni Soviet (termasuk seluruh bangsa dalam beberapa kasus).[48]
Pada bulan Februari 1956, Nikita Khrushchev mengutuk deportasi sebagai pelanggaran Leninisme, dan diputarbalikkan sebagian besar dari mereka, meskipun tidak sampai tahun 1991 bahwa Tatar, Meskhetians dan Volga Jerman diizinkan untuk kembali secara besar-besaran ke daerah asal mereka. Deportasi memiliki efek mendalam pada masyarakat Uni Soviet. Memori dari deportasi memainkan peranan utama dalam gerakan separatis di Amerika Baltik, Tatarstan , dan Chechnya, bahkan hari ini.
Kolektipisasi
Artikel utama: Kolektivisasi di Uni Soviet
rezim Stalin pindah untuk memaksa kolektivisasi pertanian. Ini dimaksudkan untuk meningkatkan hasil pertanian dari skala mekanik peternakan-besar, untuk membawa kaum tani di bawah pengawasan langsung politik lebih, dan untuk membuat koleksi pajak lebih efisien. Kolektivisasi berarti perubahan sosial drastis, pada skala yang tidak terlihat sejak penghapusan perhambaan pada tahun 1861, dan keterasingan dari kontrol atas tanah dan produknya. Kolektivisasi juga berarti penurunan drastis standar hidup bagi banyak petani, dan menghadapi reaksi keras di kalangan kaum tani.
Pada tahun-tahun pertama kolektivisasi diperkirakan bahwa produksi industri akan naik 200% dan produksi pertanian sebesar 50%,[49] namun perkiraan ini tidak dipenuhi. Stalin menyalahkan kegagalan ini tak terduga pada kulak (petani kaya), yang menolak kolektivisasi. (Namun, kulak tepat terdiri hanya 4% dari populasi petani, para "kulak" yang ditargetkan Stalin termasuk dari sedikit lebih baik-off petani mengambil siapa beban kekerasan OGPU dan Komsomol tersebut. ini petani sekitar 60% dari populasi). Mereka secara resmi didefinisikan sebagai "kulak," "pembantu kulak," dan kemudian "mantan-kulak" itu harus ditembak, ditempatkan dalam Gulag kamp kerja paksa, atau dideportasi ke daerah-daerah terpencil di negeri ini, tergantung pada tagihan. Archival data menunjukkan bahwa 20.201 orang telah dieksekusi selama tahun 1930, tahun Dekulakization.[45]
The-tahap kemajuan dua kolektivisasi-sela tahun dengan cara yang terkenal editorial's Stalin, "Dizzy dengan keberhasilan"[50] dan "Balas ke Kolektif Farm Kawan-kawan"[51]-merupakan contoh utama dari kapasitasnya untuk penarikan politik taktis diikuti oleh intensifikasi strategi awal.
Kelaparan
Kelaparan mempengaruhi bagian lain dari Uni Soviet. Jumlah korban tewas akibat kelaparan di Uni Soviet saat ini diperkirakan antara lima dan sepuluh juta orang.[52] Kegagalan panen terburuk dari tsar Rusia akhir, pada tahun 1892, telah menyebabkan 375.000 menjadi 400.000 kematian.[53] Kebanyakan sarjana modern setuju bahwa kelaparan tersebut disebabkan oleh kebijakan pemerintah Uni Soviet di bawah Stalin, bukan oleh alasan alami.[54]
Memasuki Gulag (daun dari Eufrosinia Kersnovskayanotebook s ')
Menurut Alan Bullock, "biji-bijian tanaman Soviet total tidak lebih buruk dari pada 1931 ... itu bukan gagal panen tetapi tuntutan yang berlebihan dari negara, kejam dipaksakan, bahwa biaya hidup sebanyak lima juta petani Ukraina . " Stalin menolak untuk melepaskan cadangan biji-bijian besar yang bisa meringankan bencana kelaparan, sambil terus ekspor gandum, ia yakin bahwa para petani Ukraina telah menyembunyikan gandum pergi, dan ketat kejam kolektif-pertanian pencurian undang-undang baru di respon.[55][56] sejarawan lain tahan sebagian besar panen tidak cukup 1931 dan 1932 disebabkan oleh berbagai bencana alam yang mengakibatkan kelaparan, dengan panen yang sukses tahun 1933 mengakhiri kelaparan.[57] Soviet dan sejarawan lain berpendapat bahwa kolektivisasi cepat pertanian diperlukan untuk mencapai cepat industrialisasi yang sama dari Uni Soviet dan akhirnya menang Perang Dunia II. Hal ini masih diperdebatkan oleh para sejarawan lainnya; Alec Nove mengklaim bahwa Uni Soviet meskipun industri, bukan karena, pertanian kolektif tersebut.
USSR juga mengalami kelaparan besar pada tahun 1947 sebagai akibat dari kerusakan akibat perang dan kekeringan berat, namun ekonom Michael Ellman berpendapat bahwa hal itu bisa dicegah jika pemerintah tidak salah mengurus cadangan biji-bijian tersebut. kelaparan Biaya sebuah 1 diperkirakan 1,5 juta jiwa serta kerugian populasi sekunder disebabkan oleh menurunnya kesuburan.[58]
Ukraina kelaparan
Artikel utama: Holodomor
Kelaparan Holodomor kadang-kadang disebut sebagai Ukraina Genosida, menyiratkan hal itu direkayasa oleh pemerintah Soviet, khususnya menargetkan orang Ukraina untuk menghancurkan bangsa Ukraina sebagai faktor politik dan entitas sosial.[59] Sementara sejarawan tetap tidak setuju apakah kebijakan yang menyebabkan jatuh Holodomor bawah definisi hukum genosida, 26 negara telah secara resmi mengakui Holodomor seperti itu. Pada tanggal 28 November 2006, Parlemen Ukraina menyetujui tagihan, sesuai dengan yang era-Soviet terpaksa kelaparan adalah tindakan genosida terhadap orang-orang Ukraina.[60] Profesor Michael Ellman menyimpulkan bahwa Ukraina menjadi korban genosida di 1932-1933, menurut lebih definisi santai, yang disukai oleh beberapa ahli di bidang studi genosida. Dia menegaskan bahwa kebijakan Soviet sangat diperburuk kematian tol kelaparan (seperti penggunaan penyiksaan dan eksekusi untuk mengekstrak biji-bijian (lihat Hukum Spikelets), dengan 1,8 juta ton dapat diekspor selama puncak-kelaparan cukup untuk memberi makan 5 juta orang selama satu tahun, penggunaan kekuatan untuk mencegah kelaparan petani dari melarikan diri dari daerah yang terkena dampak paling parah, dan penolakan untuk mengimpor gandum atau kemanusiaan bantuan internasional aman untuk meringankan penderitaan) dan bahwa Stalin dimaksudkan untuk digunakan sebagai kelaparan dan efisien berarti murah (sebagai lawan dari deportasi dan penembakan) untuk membunuh orang-orang yang dianggap "kontra-revolusioner," "pemalas," dan "pencuri," tapi tidak untuk memusnahkan kaum tani Ukraina secara keseluruhan. Ia juga mengklaim bahwa, sementara ini tidak Soviet genosida saja (misalnya The operasi Polandia NKVD), itu adalah yang terburuk dalam hal korban massa.[43]
Saat ini perkiraan jumlah korban dalam jangkauan Ukraina Uni Soviet kebanyakan dari 2,2 juta[61][62] sampai dengan 4 untuk 5 juta.[63][64][65]
Sebuah pengadilan Ukraina ditemukan Josef Stalin dan para pemimpin lainnya dari Uni Soviet bersalah karena genosida oleh "mengorganisir kelaparan massal di Ukraina pada 1932-1933" pada Januari 2010. Namun, pengadilan "turun proses pidana atas tersangka kematian itu".[66][67]
Industrialisasi
Para Perang Saudara Rusia dan komunisme perang memiliki efek buruk pada negara perekonomian. Produksi industri pada tahun 1922 adalah 13% dari tahun 1914. Sebuah pemulihan diikuti di bawah Kebijakan Ekonomi Baru, yang memungkinkan tingkat fleksibilitas pasar dalam konteks sosialisme. Under arah Stalin, ini diganti dengan sistem terpusat ditahbiskan "Tahun Rencana Lima" pada akhir tahun 1920. Ini menyerukan agar program yang sangat ambisius dari dipandu crash-negara industrialisasi dan kolektivisasi pertanian.
Dengan modal benih tersedia karena reaksi internasional untuk kebijakan Komunis, kecil perdagangan internasional, dan hampir tidak ada infrastruktur modern,'s pemerintah Stalin dibiayai industrialisasi baik dengan menahan konsumsi pada bagian warga Soviet biasa untuk memastikan modal yang pergi untuk kembali investasi ke dalam industri, dan kejam oleh ekstraksi kekayaan dari kulak.
Pada tahun 1933 pendapatan riil 'pekerja tenggelam sekitar sepersepuluh dari tingkat tahun 1926.[rujukan?] dan tahanan politik umum di kamp kerja dipaksa untuk melakukan kerja yang tidak dibayar, dan komunis dan Komsomol anggota sering "dimobilisasi" untuk berbagai proyek konstruksi. Uni Soviet digunakan ahli asing banyak, untuk merancang pabrik baru, mengawasi konstruksi, menginstruksikan pekerja dan meningkatkan proses manufaktur. Kontraktor luar negeri yang paling penting adalah Albert Kahn perusahaan yang dirancang dan dibangun 521 pabrik antara 1930 dan 1932. Sebagai aturan, pabrik disuplai dengan peralatan impor.
Terlepas dari kerusakan dini dan kegagalan, dua yang pertama-Rencana Lima Tahun dicapai industrialisasi yang pesat dari ekonomi basa rendah sangat. Meskipun umumnya sepakat bahwa Uni Soviet mencapai tingkat pertumbuhan ekonomi yang signifikan di bawah Stalin, laju pertumbuhan yang tepat adalah sengketa. Hal ini tidak diperdebatkan, bagaimanapun, bahwa keuntungan tersebut dicapai dengan biaya jutaan jiwa. Soviet resmi dinyatakan perkiraan tingkat pertumbuhan tahunan sebesar 13,9%, dan perkiraan Rusia Barat memberikan angka yang lebih rendah antara 5,8% dan bahkan 2,9%. Memang, salah satu perkiraan adalah bahwa pertumbuhan Soviet menjadi jauh lebih tinggi sementara setelah kematian Stalin.[68]
Menurut Robert Lewis Lima Tahun Rencana substansial membantu untuk memodernisasi ekonomi Soviet mundur sebelumnya. Produk baru dikembangkan, dan skala dan efisiensi produksi yang ada sangat meningkat. Beberapa inovasi tersebut berdasarkan perkembangan teknis adat, yang lain pada teknologi asing diimpor.[69] Meskipun biaya, upaya industrialisasi mengijinkan Uni Soviet untuk melawan, dan akhirnya menang, Perang Dunia II.
Ilmu pengetahuan
Artikel utama: Ilmu dan teknologi di Uni Soviet dan penelitian ditekan di Uni Soviet
Sains di Uni Soviet berada di bawah kontrol ideologis yang ketat oleh Stalin dan pemerintah, bersama dengan seni dan sastra. Ada kemajuan yang signifikan dalam "ideologis aman" domain, karena bebas pendidikan Soviet -sistem dan penelitian dibiayai negara. Namun, dalam beberapa kasus konsekuensi dari tekanan ideologi yang dramatis-yang penting contoh yang paling menjadi "borjuis pseudosciences" genetika dan sibernetika. Beberapa daerah fisika dikritik,[70][71] Namun, meskipun awalnya direncanakan,[72] sementara Stalin secara pribadi dan langsung memberikan kontribusi untuk belajar di Linguistik, karya prinsip yang merupakan esai kecil, "dan Bahasa Pertanyaan Marxisme."[73] Penelitian ilmiah adalah terhalang oleh kenyataan bahwa banyak ilmuwan dikirim ke kamp kerja paksa (termasuk Lev Landau, yang kemudian menjadi Hadiah Nobel pemenang, yang menghabiskan satu tahun di penjara di 1938-1939) atau dieksekusi (misalnya Lev Shubnikov, ditembak pada tahun 1937 ).
Pelayanan sosial
Artikel utama: demokrasi Soviet
Di bawah orang-orang pemerintah Soviet manfaat dari beberapa liberalisasi sosial. Gadis-gadis itu diberi sama, pendidikan yang memadai dan wanita memiliki hak yang sama dalam kerja,[12] memperbaiki kehidupan bagi perempuan dan keluarga. pembangunan Stalinis juga memberikan kontribusi untuk kemajuan dalam perawatan kesehatan, yang secara signifikan meningkatkan umur dan kualitas hidup warga Soviet khas.[12] Teman-kebijakan Stalin yang diberikan orang-orang Soviet akses universal untuk kesehatan dan pendidikan, efektif menciptakan generasi pertama bebas dari rasa takut dari tifus, kolera, dan malaria.[74] The kejadian penyakit ini turun untuk merekam angka yang rendah, meningkatkan rentang hidup dengan dekade.[74]
wanita Soviet di bawah Stalin adalah generasi pertama dari perempuan mampu melahirkan di rumah sakit keselamatan, dengan akses ke perawatan kehamilan.[74] Pendidikan juga merupakan contoh peningkatan standar hidup setelah pembangunan ekonomi. Generasi yang lahir pada pemerintahan Stalin adalah generasi dekat-universal melek pertama. Jutaan manfaat dari kampanye keaksaraan massa di tahun 1930, dan dari pekerja pelatihan skema.[75] Engineers dikirim ke luar negeri untuk mempelajari teknologi industri, dan ratusan insinyur asing dibawa ke Rusia pada kontrak.[74] Transportasi link ditingkatkan dan banyak yang baru kereta api dibangun. Pekerja yang melebihi kuota mereka, Stakhanovites, menerima banyak insentif untuk pekerjaan mereka;[75] mereka mampu untuk membeli barang yang diproduksi secara massal oleh Soviet ekonomi berkembang dengan cepat.
Peningkatan permintaan akibat industrialisasi dan penurunan tenaga kerja akibat Perang Dunia II dan represi menghasilkan ekspansi besar dalam kesempatan kerja bagi para korban, terutama bagi perempuan.[75]
Budaya
Artikel utama: Realisme Sosialis
Meskipun lahir di Georgia, Stalin menjadi seorang nasionalis Rusia dan dipromosikan secara signifikan sejarah Rusia, bahasa, dan pahlawan nasional Rusia, khususnya selama tahun 1930-an dan 1940-an. Dia memegang Rusia sebagai saudara tua dari minoritas non-Rusia.[76]
Selama ini pemerintahan Stalin yang resmi dan berumur panjang gaya Realisme Sosialis didirikan untuk lukisan, patung,, drama musik dan sastra. Sebelumnya modis "revolusioner" ekspresionisme, seni abstrak, dan avant-garde eksperimen adalah berkecil hati atau dikecam sebagai "formalisme".
Terkenal angka tersebut ditekan, dan banyak dianiaya, disiksa dan dieksekusi, baik "revolusioner" (di antara mereka Isaac Babel, Vsevolod Meyerhold, Anna Akhmatova, Nikolai Gumilev, Lev Gumilev) dan "non-konformis" (misalnya, Osip Mandelstam). Sejumlah kecil sisa-revolusioner Rusia pra selamat[klarifikasi diperlukan]. Tingkat pribadi keterlibatan's Stalin secara umum, dan dalam kasus tertentu, telah menjadi topik diskusi. novel favorit Stalin Firaun, berbagi kesamaan dengan Sergei Eisensteinfilm s ', Ivan the Terrible, diproduksi di bawah ini bimbingan Stalin.
Dalam arsitektur, seorang Stalinis Kekaisaran Style (pada dasarnya, diperbarui Neoclassicism pada skala yang sangat besar, dicontohkan oleh Seven Sisters Moskow) menggantikan konstruktivisme tahun 1920-an. Teman-pemerintahan Stalin memiliki efek mengganggu sebagian besar pada budaya adat di dalam Uni Soviet, meskipun politik Korenizatsiya dan dipaksa pengembangan yang mungkin bermanfaat bagi integrasi generasi kemudian budaya asli.
Agama
Artikel utama: Agama di Uni Soviet
Stalin mengikuti posisi diadopsi oleh Lenin bahwa agama adalah candu yang perlu dihilangkan dalam rangka membangun masyarakat komunis yang ideal. Untuk tujuan ini, pemerintahannya dipromosikan ateisme ateistik melalui pendidikan khusus di sekolah, sejumlah besar propaganda anti-agama, karya anti-lembaga publik (khususnya Masyarakat dari Godless), hukum diskriminatif, dan juga kampanye teror terhadap penganut agama. Oleh 1930-an telah menjadi berbahaya akan disampaikan kepada publik berkaitan dengan agama.[77]
peran Stalin pada nasib dari Gereja Ortodoks Rusia adalah kompleks. penganiayaan terus-menerus pada tahun 1930 mengakibatkan hampir punah-nya sebagai lembaga publik: pada tahun 1939, paroki aktif berjumlah ratusan rendah (turun dari 54.000 di 1917), banyak gereja sudah diratakan, dan puluhan ribu imam, biarawan dan biarawati dianiaya dan dibunuh. Lebih dari 100.000 ditembak selama pembersihan dari 1937-1938.[78] Selama Perang Dunia II, Gereja diizinkan kebangkitan sebagai organisasi patriotik, setelah NKVD telah merekrut yang baru metropolitan, yang pertama setelah revolusi, sebagai agen rahasia . Ribuan paroki diaktifkan kembali sampai putaran lebih lanjut dari penindasan di Khrushchev waktu. Gereja Ortodoks Rusia Sinode's Pengakuan pemerintah Soviet dan Stalin secara pribadi menyebabkan skisma dengan Gereja Ortodoks Rusia di luar Rusia.
Hanya beberapa hari sebelum kematian Stalin, sekte agama tertentu adalah dilarang dan dianiaya. Gereja, Banyak agama yang populer di daerah etnis dari Uni Soviet termasuk Katolik Roma Uniats, Baptis, Islam, Budha, Yudaisme, dll mengalami cobaan mirip dengan gereja-gereja Ortodoks di bagian lain: ribuan biarawan dianiaya, dan ratusan gereja , sinagoga, masjid, kuil, monumen suci, biara dan bangunan keagamaan lainnya diratakan.
Teoretisi
Artikel utama: Stalinisme
Stalin dan pendukungnya telah menyoroti gagasan bahwa sosialisme dapat dibangun dan dikonsolidasikan oleh negara sebagai berkembang seperti Rusia selama tahun 1920. Memang ini mungkin satu-satunya di mana ia bisa dibangun dalam lingkungan yang tidak bersahabat.[79] Pada tahun 1933, Stalin mengajukan teori kejengkelan dari perjuangan kelas seiring dengan perkembangan sosialisme, dengan alasan bahwa negara lebih jauh akan bergerak depan, bentuk yang lebih akut perjuangan akan digunakan oleh sisa-sisa ditakdirkan kelas pengeksploitasi dalam upaya putus asa terakhir mereka - dan bahwa, oleh karena itu, represi politik yang diperlukan.
Pada tahun 1936, Stalin mengumumkan bahwa masyarakat Uni Soviet terdiri dari dua kelas non-antagonis: pekerja dan kolkhoz tani. Ini berhubungan dengan dua bentuk yang berbeda dari milik atas alat-alat produksi yang ada di Uni Soviet: kekayaan negara (bagi pekerja) dan harta bersama (untuk kaum tani). Selain itu, Stalin membedakan strata intelektual. Konsep "non-antagonis kelas" sepenuhnya baru terhadap teori Leninis. Diantara's kontribusi Stalin untuk literatur teoritis Komunis "dialektis dan Materialisme Sejarah, "" Marxisme dan Pertanyaan Nasional "," Trotskisme atau Leninisme ", dan" Prinsip Leninisme. "
Menghitung jumlah korban
Para peneliti sebelum pembubaran 1991 Uni Soviet mencoba untuk menghitung jumlah orang yang tewas di bawah rezim Stalin yang dihasilkan estimasi waktu 3 sampai 60 juta.[80] Setelah Uni Soviet dibubarkan, bukti dari arsip Soviet juga menjadi tersedia, berisi catatan resmi eksekusi sekitar 800.000 tahanan di bawah Stalin untuk salah satu atau pidana kejahatan politik, sekitar 1,7 juta kematian di gulag dan beberapa 390.000 kematian selama kulak pemindahan paksa - total sekitar 3 juta resmi korban dalam mencatat kategori. untuk[81]
The arsip catatan resmi Soviet tidak mengandung angka yang komprehensif untuk beberapa kategori korban, seperti orang-orang dari etnis deportasi atau pemindahan penduduk Jerman pasca Perang Dunia II.[82] Pada 1948, menurut Nicolas Werth, angka kematian dari 600.000 orang dideportasi dari Kaukasus antara 1943 dan 1944 telah mencapai 25 persen.[83] pengecualian terkenal lainnya dari NKVD data pada kematian represi termasuk pembantaian Katyn, pembunuhan lain di daerah yang baru diduduki, dan penembakan massa dari Tentara Merah personil (desertir dan yang disebut desersi sehingga) pada tahun 1941. Soviet dieksekusi 158.000 tentara karena desersi selama perang,[84] dan "detasemen memblokir" dari ribuan NKVD ditembak lagi.[85] Selain itu, statistik resmi tentang kematian Gulag mengecualikan kematian tahanan terjadi tak lama setelah mereka dibebaskan tetapi yang dihasilkan dari perlakuan kasar di kamp-kamp.[86] Beberapa sejarawan juga percaya angka arsip resmi dari kategori yang direkam oleh pemerintah Soviet dapat diandalkan dan tidak lengkap.[87][88] Di samping kegagalan tentang rekaman yang komprehensif, sebagai salah satu contoh tambahan, Robert Gellately dan Simon Sebayang-Montefiore membantah banyak tersangka dipukuli dan disiksa sampai mati sementara di "tahanan investigasi" kemungkinan besar tidak telah dihitung di antara dieksekusi.[12][89]
Sejarawan kerja setelah Soviet Uni pembubaran tersebut telah memperkirakan korban total berkisar dari sekitar 4 juta untuk hampir 10 juta, tidak termasuk mereka yang meninggal dalam kelaparan.[90] Rusia penulis Vadim Erlikman, misalnya, membuat perkiraan sebagai berikut: eksekusi, 1,5 juta; gulag, 5 juta, deportasi, 1,7 juta dari 7,5 juta dideportasi, dan tawanan perang dan warga sipil Jerman, 1 juta - total sekitar 9 juta korban penindasan.[91]
Beberapa juga menyertakan kematian 6 sampai 8 juta orang dalam kelaparan 1932-1933 sebagai korban's penindasan Stalin. kategorisasi ini kontroversial Namun, sebagai sejarawan berbeda pendapat apakah bencana kelaparan merupakan bagian sengaja kampanye penindasan terhadap kulak dan lain-lain,[43][92][93] atau hanya sebuah konsekuensi yang tidak diinginkan dari perjuangan atas kolektivisasi paksa.[56][94][95]
Oleh karena itu, jika korban kelaparan dimasukkan, minimal sekitar 10 juta kematian-6 juta dari kelaparan dan 4 juta dari penyebab-lain dikaitkan dengan rezim,[96] dengan sejumlah sejarawan baru-baru ini menunjukkan total kemungkinan sekitar 20 juta , mengutip korban total yang lebih tinggi banyak dari eksekusi, gulag, deportasi dan penyebab lainnya.[97] Menambahkan 6-8.000.000 korban kelaparan dapat's perkiraan Erlikman di atas, misalnya, akan menghasilkan total antara 15 dan 17 juta korban. Peneliti Robert Conquest, sementara itu, telah merevisi perkiraan aslinya hingga 30 juta korban sampai 20 juta.[98] Dalam edisi terbaru tentang The Great Terror (2007), Penaklukan menyatakan bahwa sementara angka pastinya tidak akan pernah diketahui dengan lengkap kepastian, kampanye berbagai teror yang diluncurkan oleh pemerintah Soviet mengklaim tidak kurang dari 15 juta jiwa.[99] Lain-lain mempertahankan bahwa jumlah korban sebelumnya yang lebih tinggi perkiraan mereka sudah benar.[100][101]
World War II, 1939–1945
Main article: Joseph Stalin in World War II
Ribbentrop and Stalin at the signing of the Pact
Pact with Hitler
The frequent references in this article or section reduce readability.
Please improve the article by rearranging citations so they interrupt the text less frequently.
After a failed attempt to sign an anti-German military alliance with France and Britain[102][103][104] and talks with Germany regarding a potential political deal,[102][103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111] on 23 August 1939, the Soviet Union entered into a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany, negotiated by Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov and German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop.[112] Officially a non-aggression treaty only, an appended secret protocol, also reached on 23 August 1939, divided the whole of eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence.[113][114]
The eastern part of Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Finland and part of Romania were recognized as parts of the Soviet sphere of influence,[114] with Lithuania added in a second secret protocol in September 1939.[115] Stalin and Ribbentrop traded toasts on the night of the signing discussing past hostilities between the countries.[116]
Implementing the division of Eastern Europe and other invasions
On 1 September 1939, the German invasion of its agreed upon portion of Poland started World War II.[112] On 17 September the Red Army invaded eastern Poland and occupied the Polish territory assigned to it by the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, followed by co-ordination with German forces in Poland.[117][118] Eleven days later, the secret protocol of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was modified, allotting Germany a larger part of Poland, while ceding most of Lithuania to the Soviet Union.[119]
Planned and actual territorial changes in Eastern and Central Europe 1939–1940 (click to enlarge)
After Stalin declared that he was going to "solve the Baltic problem", by June 1940, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia were merged into the Soviet Union, after repressions and actions therein brought about the deaths of over 160,000 citizens of these states.[119][120][121][122] After facing stiff resistance in an invasion of Finland,[123] an interim peace was entered, granting the Soviet Union the eastern region of Karelia (10% of Finnish territory).[123]
After this campaign, Stalin took actions to bolster the Soviet military, modify training and improve propaganda efforts in the Soviet military.[124] In June 1940, Stalin directed the Soviet annexation of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina, proclaiming this formerly Romanian territory part of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic.[125] But in annexing northern Bukovina, Stalin had gone beyond the agreed limits of the secret protocol.[125]
Stalin and Molotov on the signing of the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact with the Empire of Japan, 1941
After the Tripartite Pact was signed by Axis Powers Germany, Japan and Italy, in October 1940, Stalin traded letters with Ribbentrop, with Stalin writing about entering an agreement regarding a "permanent basis" for their "mutual interests."[126] After a conference in Berlin between Hitler, Molotov and Ribbentrop, Germany presented the Molotov with a proposed written agreement for Axis entry.[125][127] On 25 November, Stalin responded with a proposed written agreement for Axis entry which was never answered by Germany.[128] Shortly thereafter, Hitler issued a secret directive on the eventual attempts to invade the Soviet Union.[128] In an effort to demonstrate peaceful intentions toward Germany, on 13 April 1941, Stalin oversaw the signing of a neutrality pact with Axis power Japan.[129]
Hitler breaks the pact
During the early morning of 22 June 1941, Hitler broke the pact by implementing Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of Soviet held territories and the Soviet Union that began the war on the Eastern Front.[130] Although Stalin had received warnings from spies and his generals,[131][132][133][134][135] he felt that Germany would not attack the Soviet Union until Germany had defeated Britain.[131] In the initial hours after the German attack commenced, Stalin hesitated, wanting to ensure that the German attack was sanctioned by Hitler, rather than the unauthorized action of a rogue general.[12]
Accounts by Nikita Khrushchev and Anastas Mikoyan claim that, after the invasion, Stalin retreated to his dacha in despair for several days and did not participate in leadership decisions.[136] However, some documentary evidence of orders given by Stalin contradicts these accounts, leading some historians to speculate that Khruschev's account is inaccurate.[137] By the end of 1941, the Soviet military had suffered 4.3 million casualties[138] and German forces had advanced 1,050 miles (1,690 kilometers).[139]
Soviets stop the Germans
While the Germans pressed forward, Stalin was confident of an eventual Allied victory over Germany. In September 1941, Stalin told British diplomats that he wanted two agreements: (1) a mutual assistance/aid pact and (2) a recognition that, after the war, the Soviet Union would gain the territories in countries that it had taken pursuant to its division of Eastern Europe with Hitler in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.[140] The British agreed to assistance but refused to agree upon the territorial gains, which Stalin accepted months later as the military situation deteriorated somewhat in mid-1942.[140] By December, Hitler's troops had advanced to within 20 miles of the Kremlin in Moscow.[141] On 5 December, the Soviets launched a counteroffensive, pushing German troops back 40–50 miles from Moscow, the Wehrmacht's first significant defeat of the war.[141]
In 1942, Hitler shifted his primary goal from an immediate victory in the East, to the more long-term goal of securing the southern Soviet Union to protect oil fields vital to a long-term German war effort.[142] While Red Army generals saw evidence that Hitler would shift efforts south, Stalin considered this to be a flanking campaign in efforts to take Moscow.[143] During the war, Time Magazine named Stalin Time Person of the Year twice[144] and he was also one of the nominees for Time Person of the Century title.
Soviet push to Germany
The Soviets repulsed the important German strategic southern campaign and, although 2.5 million Soviet casualties were suffered in that effort, it permitted the Soviets to take the offensive for most of the rest of the war on the Eastern Front.[145]
The Big Three: Stalin, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill at the Tehran Conference, November 1943.
Germany attempted an encirclement attack at Kursk, which was successfully repulsed by the Soviets.[146] Kursk marked the beginning of a period where Stalin became more willing to listen to the advice of his generals.[147] By the end of 1943, the Soviets occupied half of the territory taken by the Germans from 1941–1942.[147] Soviet military industrial output also had increased substantially from late 1941 to early 1943 after Stalin had moved factories well to the East of the front, safe from German invasion and air attack.[148]
In November 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in Tehran.[149] The parties later agreed that Britain and America would launch a cross-channel invasion of France in May 1944, along with a separate invasion of southern France.[150] Stalin insisted that, after the war, the Soviet Union should incorporate the portions of Poland it occupied pursuant to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Germany, which Churchill tabled.[151]
In 1944, the Soviet Union made significant advances across Eastern Europe toward Germany,[152] including Operation Bagration, a massive offensive in Belorussia against the German Army Group Centre.[153]
Final victory
By April 1945, Germany faced its last days with 1.9 million German soldiers in the East fighting 6.4 million Red Army soldiers while 1 million German soldiers in the West battled 4 million Western Allied soldiers.[154] While initial talk existed of a race to Berlin by the Allies, after Stalin successfully lobbied for Eastern Germany to fall within the Soviet "sphere of influence" at Yalta, no plans were made by the Western Allies to seize the city by a ground operation.[155][156]
On 30 April, Hitler and Eva Braun committed suicide, after which Soviet forces found their remains, which had been burned at Hitler's directive.[157] German forces surrendered a few days later. Despite the Soviets' possession of Hitler's remains, Stalin did not believe that his old nemesis was actually dead, a belief that remained for years after the war.[158][159]
Fending off the German invasion and pressing to victory in the East required a tremendous sacrifice by the Soviet Union.[160] Soviet military casualties totaled approximately 35 million (official figures 28.2 million) with approximately 14.7 million killed, missing or captured (official figures 11.285 million).[161] Although figures vary, the Soviet civilian death toll probably reached 20 million.[161] One of every four Soviet citizens was killed or wounded in that war.[162] Some 1,710 towns and 70,000 villages were destroyed.[163] Thereafter, Stalin was at times referred to as one of the most influential men in human history.[164][165]
Nobel Prize in Peace nominations
In 1945, he was mentioned by Halvdan Koht among seven candidates that were qualified for the Nobel Prize in Peace. However, he did not explicitly nominate any of them. The person actually nominated was Cordell Hull.[166]
In 1948, he was officially nominated for the Nobel Prize in Peace by Wladislav Rieger.[167]
Questionable tactics
Part of the 5 March 1940 memo from Lavrentiy Beria to Stalin proposing execution of Polish officers
After taking around 300,000 Polish prisoners in 1939 and early 1940,[168][169][169][170][171] 25,700 Polish POWs were executed on 5 March 1940, pursuant to a note from to Stalin from Lavrenty Beria, the members of the Soviet Politburo,[172][173] in what became known as the Katyn massacre.[174][172][175] While Stalin personally told a Polish general they'd "lost track" of the officers in Manchuria,[176][177][178][178] Polish railroad workers found the mass grave after the 1941 Nazi invasion.[179] The massacre became a source of political controversy,[180][181] with the Soviets eventually claiming that Germany committed the executions when the Soviet Union retook Poland in 1944.[172][182] The Soviets did not admit responsibility until 1990.[183]
Stalin introduced controversial military orders, such as Order No. 270, requiring superiors to shoot deserters on the spot[184] while their family members were subject to arrest.[185] Thereafter, Stalin also conducted a purge of several military commanders that were shot for "cowardice" without a trial.[185] Stalin issued Order No. 227, directing that commanders permitting retreat without permission to be subject to a military tribunal,[186] and soldiers guilty of disciplinary procedures to be forced into "penal battalions", which were sent to the most dangerous sections of the front lines.[186] From 1942 to 1945, 427,910 soldiers were assigned to penal battalions.[187] The order also directed "blocking detachments" to shoot fleeing panicked troops at the rear.[186]
In June 1941, weeks after the German invasion began, Stalin also directed employing a scorched earth policy of destroying the infrastructure and food supplies of areas before the Germans could seize them, and that partisans were to be set up in evacuated areas.[137] He also ordered the NKVD to murder around one hundred thousand political prisoners in areas where the Wermacht approached,[188] while others were deported east.[87][189]
After the capture of Berlin, Soviet troops reportedly raped from tens of thousands to two million women,[190] and 50,000 during and after the occupation of Budapest.[191][192] In former Axis countries, such as Germany, Romania and Hungary, Red Army officers generally viewed cities, villages and farms as being open to pillaging and looting.[193]
In the Soviet Occupation Zone of post-war Germany, the Soviets set up ten NKVD-run "special camps" subordinate to the gulag.[194] These "special camps" were former Stalags, prisons, or Nazi concentration camps such as Sachsenhausen (special camp number 7) and Buchenwald (special camp number 2).[195] According to German government estimates, "65,000 people died in those Soviet-run camps or in transportation to them."[196]
According to recent figures, of an estimated four million POWs taken by the Soviets, including Germans, Japanese, Hungarians, Romanians and others, some 580,000 never returned, presumably victims of privation or the Gulags.[197] Soviet POWs and forced laborers who survived German captivity were sent to special "transit" or "filtration" camps to determine which were potential traitors.[198]
Of the approximately 4 million to be repatriated 2,660,013 were civilians and 1,539,475 were former POWs.[198] Of the total, 2,427,906 were sent home and 801,152 were reconscripted into the armed forces.[198] 608,095 were enrolled in the work battalions of the defense ministry.[198] 272,867 were transferred to the authority of the NKVD for punishment, which meant a transfer to the Gulag system.[198][199][200] 89,468 remained in the transit camps as reception personnel until the repatriation process was finally wound up in the early 1950s.[198]
Allied conferences on post-war Europe
The Big Three: British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Stalin at the Yalta Conference, February 1945.
Stalin met in several conferences with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (and later Clement Attlee) and/or American President Franklin D. Roosevelt (and later Harry Truman) to plan military strategy and, later, to discuss Europe's postwar reorganization. Very early conferences, such as that with British diplomats in Moscow in 1941 and with Churchill and American diplomats in Moscow in 1942, focused mostly upon war planning and supply, though some preliminary postwar reorganization discussion also occurred. In 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in the Tehran Conference. In 1944, Stalin met with Churchill in the Moscow Conference. Beginning in late 1944, the Red Army occupied much of Eastern Europe during these conferences and the discussions shifted to a more intense focus on the reorganization of postwar Europe.
In February 1945, at the conference at Yalta, Stalin demanded a Soviet sphere of political influence in Eastern Europe.[201] Stalin eventually was convinced by Churchill and Roosevelt not to dismember Germany.[201] Stalin also stated that the Polish government-in-exile demands for self-rule were not negotiable, such that the Soviet Union would keep the territory of eastern Poland they had already taken by invasion with German consent in 1939, and wanted the pro-Soviet Polish government installed.[201] After resistance by Churchill and Roosevelt, Stalin promised a re-organization of the current Communist puppet government on a broader democratic basis in Poland.[201] He stated the new government's primary task would be to prepare elections.[202]
The parties at Yalta further agreed that the countries of liberated Europe and former Axis satellites would be allowed to "create democratic institutions of their own choice", pursuant to "the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live."[203] The parties also agreed to help those countries form interim governments "pledged to the earliest possible establishment through free elections" and "facilitate where necessary the holding of such elections."[203] After the re-organization of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland, the parties agreed that the new party shall "be pledged to the holding of free and unfettered elections as soon as possible on the basis of universal suffrage and secret ballot."[203] One month after Yalta, the Soviet NKVD arrested 16 Polish leaders wishing to participate in provisional government negotiations, for alleged "crimes" and "diversions", which drew protest from the West.[202] The fraudulent Polish elections, held in January 1947 resulted in Poland's official transformation to undemocratic communist state by 1949.
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, U.S. President Harry S. Truman and Premiere Joseph Stalin at the Potsdam Conference, July 1945.
At the Potsdam Conference from July to August 1945, though Germany had surrendered months earlier, instead of withdrawing Soviet forces from Eastern European countries, Stalin had not moved those forces. At the beginning of the conference, Stalin repeated previous promises to Churchill that he would refrain from a "Sovietization" of Eastern Europe.[204] Stalin pushed for reparations from Germany without regard to the base minimum supply for German citizens' survival, which worried Truman and Churchill who thought that Germany would become a financial burden for Western powers.[205]
In addition to reparations, Stalin pushed for "war booty", which would permit the Soviet Union to directly seize property from conquered nations without quantitative or qualitative limitation, and a clause was added permitting this to occur with some limitations.[205] By July 1945, Stalin's troops effectively controlled the Baltic States, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania, and refugees were fleeing out of these countries fearing a Communist take-over. The western allies, and especially Churchill, were suspicious of the motives of Stalin, who had already installed communist governments in the central European countries under his influence.
In these conferences, his first appearances on the world stage, Stalin proved to be a formidable negotiator. Anthony Eden, the British Foreign Secretary noted: "Marshal Stalin as a negotiator was the toughest proposition of all. Indeed, after something like thirty years' experience of international conferences of one kind and another, if I had to pick a team for going into a conference room, Stalin would be my first choice. Of course the man was ruthless and of course he knew his purpose. He never wasted a word. He never stormed, he was seldom even irritated."[206]
Post-war era, 1945–1953
The Iron Curtain and the Eastern Bloc
After Soviet forces remained in Eastern and Central European countries, with the beginnings of communist puppet regimes in those countries, Churchill referred to the region as being behind an "Iron Curtain" of control from Moscow.[207][208] The countries under Soviet control in Eastern and Central Europe were sometimes called the "Eastern bloc" or "Soviet Bloc".
The Eastern Bloc until 1989.
In Soviet-controlled East Germany, the major task of the ruling communist party in Germany was to channel Soviet orders down to both the administrative apparatus and the other bloc parties pretending that these were initiatives of its own,[209] with deviations potentially leading to reprimands, imprisonment, torture and even death.[209] Property and industry were nationalized.[209]
The German Democratic Republic was declared on 7 October 1949, with a new constitution which enshrined socialism and gave the Soviet-controlled Socialist Unity Party ("SED") control. In Berlin, after citizens strongly rejected communist candidates in an election, in June 1948, the Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin, the portion of Berlin not under Soviet control, cutting off all supply of food and other items. The blockade failed due to the unexpected massive aerial resupply campaign carried out by the Western powers known as the Berlin Airlift. In 1949, Stalin conceded defeat and ended the blockade.
While Stalin had promised at the Yalta Conference that free elections would be held in Poland,[203] after an election failure in "3 times YES" elections,[210] vote rigging was employed to win a majority in the carefully controlled poll.[211][212][213] Following the forged referendum, the Polish economy started to become nationalized.[214]
In Hungary, when the Soviets installed a communist government, Mátyás Rákosi, who described himself as "Stalin's best Hungarian disciple"[215] and "Stalin's best pupil",[216] took power. Rákosi employed "salami tactics", slicing up these enemies like pieces of salami,[217] to battle the initial postwar political majority ready to establish a democracy.[218] Rákosi, employed Stalinist political and economic programs, and was dubbed the "bald murderer" for establishing one of the harshest dictatorships in Europe.[218][219] Approximately 350,000 Hungarian officials and intellectuals were purged from 1948 to 1956.[218]
During World War II, in Bulgaria, the Red Army crossed the border and created the conditions for a communist coup d'état on the following night.[220] The Soviet military commander in Sofia assumed supreme authority, and the communists whom he instructed, including Kimon Georgiev, took full control of domestic politics.[220]
In 1949, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania founded the Comecon in accordance with Stalin's desire to enforce Soviet domination of the lesser states of Central Europe and to mollify some states that had expressed interest in the Marshall Plan,[221] and which were now, increasingly, cut off from their traditional markets and suppliers in Western Europe.[222] Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland had remained interested in Marshall aid despite the requirements for a convertible currency and market economies. In July 1947, Stalin ordered these communist-dominated governments to pull out of the Paris Conference on the European Recovery Programme. This has been described as "the moment of truth" in the post-World War II division of Europe.[222]
In Greece, Britain and the United States supported the anti-communists in the Greek Civil War and suspected the Soviets of supporting the Greek communists, although Stalin refrained from getting involved in Greece, dismissing the movement as premature. Albania remained an ally of the Soviet Union, but Yugoslavia broke with the USSR in 1948.
In Stalin's last year of life, one of his last major foreign policy initiatives was the 1952 Stalin Note for German reunification and Superpower disengagement from Central Europe, but Britain, France, and the United States viewed this with suspicion and rejected the offer.
Sino-Soviet Relations
Stalin and Mao Zedong on Chinese Postage stamp
In Asia, the Red Army had overrun Manchuria in the last month of the war and then also occupied Korea above the 38th parallel north. Mao Zedong's Communist Party of China, though receptive to minimal Soviet support, defeated the pro-Western and heavily American-assisted Chinese Nationalist Party in the Chinese Civil War.
There was friction between Stalin and Mao from the beginning. During World War II Stalin had supported the socialist dictator of China, Chiang Kai-Shek, as a bulwark against Japan and had turned a blind eye to Chiang's mass killings of communists. He generally put his alliance with Chiang against Japan ahead of helping his ideological allies in China in his priorities. Even after the war Stalin concluded a non-aggression pact between the USSR and Chiang's Kuomintang (KMT) regime in China and instructed Mao and the Chinese communists to cooperate with Chiang and the KMT after the war. Mao did not follow Stalin's instructions though and started a communist revolution against Chiang. Stalin did not believe Mao would be successful so he was less than enthusiastic in helping Mao. The USSR continued to maintain diplomatic relations with Chiang's KMT regime until 1949 when it became clear Mao would win.
Stalin did conclude a new friendship and alliance treaty with Mao after he defeated Chiang. But there was still a lot of tension between the two leaders and resentment by Mao for Stalin's less than enthusiastic help during the civil war in China.
The Communists controlled mainland China while the Nationalists held a rump state on the island of Taiwan. The Soviet Union soon after recognized Mao's People's Republic of China, which it regarded as a new ally. The People's Republic claimed Taiwan, though it had never held authority there.
Diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and China reached a high point with the signing of the 1950 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance. Both countries provided military support to a new friendly state in North Korea. After various Korean border conflicts, war broke out with U.S.-allied South Korea in 1950, starting the Korean War.
North Korea
Contrary to America's policy which restrained armament (limited equipment was provided for infantry and police forces) to South Korea, Stalin extensively armed Kim Il Sung's North Korean army and air forces with military equipment (to include T-34/85 tanks) and "advisors" far in excess of those required for defensive purposes) in order to facilitate Kim's (a former Soviet Officer) aim of conquering the rest of the Korean peninsula.
The North Korean Army struck in the pre-dawn hours of Sunday, 25 June 1950, crossing the 38th parallel behind a firestorm of artillery, beginning their invasion of South Korea.[223] During the Korean War, Soviet pilots flew Soviet aircraft from Chinese bases against United Nations aircraft defending South Korea. Post-Cold war research in Soviet Archives has revealed that the Korean War was begun by Kim Il-sung with the express permission of Stalin, though this is disputed by North Korea.[citation needed]
Israel
Stalin originally supported the creation of Israel in 1948. The USSR was one of the first nations to recognize the new country.[224] Golda Meir came to Moscow as the first Israeli Ambassador to the USSR that year. However, after providing war materiel for Israel through Czechoslovakia, he later changed his mind and came out against Israel.
Falsifiers of History
In 1948, Stalin personally edited and rewrote by hand sections of the cold war book Falsifiers of History.[225] Falsifiers was published in response to the documents made public in Nazi-Soviet Relations, 1939–1941: Documents from the Archives of The German Foreign Office,[226][227] which included the secret protocols of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and other secret German-Soviet relations documents.[226][228] Falsifiers originally appeared as a series of articles in Pravda in February 1948,[227] and was subsequently published in numerous language and distributed worldwide.[229]
The book did not attempt to directly counter or deal with the documents published in Nazi-Soviet Relations[230] and rather, focused upon Western culpability for the outbreak of war in 1939.[229] It argues that "Western powers" aided Nazi rearmament and aggression, including that American bankers and industrialists provided capital for the growth of German war industries, while deliberately encouraging Hitler to expand eastward.[226][229] It depicted the Soviet Union as striving to negotiate a collective security against Hitler, while being thwarted by double-dealing Anglo-French appeasers who, despite appearances, had no intention of a Soviet alliance and were secretly negotiating with Berlin.[229] It casts the Munich agreement, not just as Anglo-French short-sightedness or cowardice, but as a "secret" agreement that was a "a highly important phase in their policy aimed at goading the Hitlerite aggressors against the Soviet Union."[231] The book also included the claim that, during the Pact's operation, Stalin rejected Hitler's offer to share in a division of the world, without mentioning the Soviet offers to join the Axis.[232] Historical studies, official accounts, memoirs and textbooks published in the Soviet Union used that depiction of events until the Soviet Union's dissolution.[232]
Domestic Support
Domestically, Stalin was seen as a great wartime leader who had led the Soviets to victory against the Nazis. His early cooperation with Hitler was forgotten. That cooperation included helping the German Army violate the Treaty of Versailles limitations, with training in the Soviet Union, the notorious Molotov-von Ribbentrop treaty which partitioned Poland giving the Soviet Union what is now Belarus and granted the Soviet Union a free hand in Finland, Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia, and Soviet trade with Hitler to counteract the expected French and British trade blockades.
By the end of the 1940s, Russian patriotism increased due to successful propaganda efforts. For instance, some inventions and scientific discoveries were claimed by Soviet propaganda. Examples include the boiler, reclaimed by father and son Cherepanovs; the electric light, by Yablochkov and Lodygin; the radio, by Popov; and the airplane, by Mozhaysky. Stalin's internal repressive policies continued (including in newly acquired territories), but never reached the extremes of the 1930s, in part because the smarter party functionaries had learned caution.
"Doctors' plot"
Main article: Doctors' plot
The "Doctors' plot" was a plot outlined by Stalin and Soviet officials in 1952 and 1953 whereby several doctors (over half of whom were Jewish) allegedly attempted to kill Soviet officials.[233] The prevailing opinion of many scholars outside the Soviet Union is that Stalin intended to use the resulting doctors' trial to launch a massive party purge.[234] The plot is also viewed by many historians as an antisemitic provocation.[233] It followed on the heels of the 1952 show trials of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee[235] and the secret execution of thirteen members on Stalin's orders in the Night of the Murdered Poets.[236]
Thereafter, in a December Politburo session, Stalin announced that "Every Jewish nationalist is the agent of the American intelligence service. Jewish nationalists think that their nation was saved by the United States (there you can become rich, bourgeois, etc.). They think they're indebted to the Americans. Among doctors, there are many Jewish nationalists."[237] To mobilize the Soviet people for his campaign, Stalin ordered TASS and Pravda to issue stories along with Stalin's alleged uncovering of a "Doctors Plot" to assassinate top Soviet leaders,[238][239] including Stalin, in order to set the stage for show trials.[240]
The next month, Pravda published stories with text regarding the purported "Jewish bourgeois-nationalist" plotters.[241] Kruschev wrote that Stalin hinted him to incite anti-Semitism in the Ukraine, telling him that "the good workers at the factory should be given clubs so they can beat the hell out of those Jews."[242][243] Stalin also ordered falsely accused physicians to be tortured "to death".[244] Regarding the origins of the plot, people who knew Stalin, such as Kruschev, suggest that Stalin had long harbored negative sentiments toward Jews,[233][245][246] and anti-Semitic trends in the Kremlin's policies were further fueled by the exile of Leon Trotsky.[233][247] In 1946, Stalin allegedly said privately that "every Jew is a potential spy."[233][248] At the end of January 1953, Stalin's personal physician Miron Vovsi (cousin of Solomon Mikhoels, who was assassinated in 1948 at the orders of Stalin)[236] was arrested within the frame of the plot. Vovsi was released by Beria after Stalin's death in 1953, as was his son-in-law, the composer Mieczyslaw Weinberg.
Some historians have argued that Stalin was also planning to send millions of Jews to four large newly built labor camps in Western Russia[240][249] using a "Deportation Commission"[250][251][252] that would purportedly act to save Soviet Jews from an engraged Soviet population after the Doctors Plot trials.[250][253][254] Others argue that any charge of an alleged mass deportation lacks specific documentary evidence.[239] Regardless of whether a plot to deport Jews was planned, in his "Secret Speech" in 1956, Soviet Premier Nikita Kruschev stated that the Doctors Plot was "fabricated ... set up by Stalin", that Stalin told the judge to beat confessions from the defendants[255] and had told Politburo members "You are blind like young kittens. What will happen without me? The country will perish because you do not know how to recognize enemies."[255]
Death and aftermath
On the early morning hours of 1 March 1953, after an all-night dinner and a movie[256] Stalin arrived at his Kuntsevo residence some 15 km west of Moscow centre with interior minister Lavrentiy Beria and future premiers Georgy Malenkov, Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev where he retired to his bedroom to sleep. At dawn, Stalin did not emerge from his room, having probably suffered a stroke that paralyzed the right side of his body.
Stalin's Grave by the Kremlin Wall Necropolis
Although his guards thought that it was odd for him not to rise at his usual time, they were under strict orders not to disturb him and left him alone the entire day. At around 10 p.m. he was discovered by Peter Lozgachev, the Deputy Commandant of Kuntsevo, who entered his bedroom to check up on him and recalled a horrifying scene of Stalin lying on the floor of his room wearing pyjama bottoms and an undershirt with his clothes soaked in stale urine. A frightened Lozgachev asked Stalin what happened to him, but all he could get out of the Generalissimo was unintelligible responses that sounded like "Dzhh." Lozgachez frantically called a few party officials asking them to send good doctors.[257] Lavrentiy Beria was informed and arrived a few hours afterwards, and the doctors only arrived in the early morning of 2 March in which they changed his bedclothes and tended to him. The bedridden Stalin died four days later, on 5 March 1953,[2] at the age of 74, and was embalmed on 9 March. Officially, the cause of death was listed as a cerebral hemorrhage. His body was preserved in Lenin's Mausoleum until 31 October 1961, when his body was removed from the Mausoleum and buried next to the Kremlin walls as part of the process of de-Stalinization.
It has been suggested that Stalin was assassinated. The ex-Communist exile Avtorkhanov argued this point as early as 1975. The political memoirs of Vyacheslav Molotov, published in 1993, claimed that Beria had boasted to Molotov that he poisoned Stalin: "I took him out."
Khrushchev wrote in his memoirs that Beria had, immediately after the stroke, gone about "spewing hatred against [Stalin] and mocking him", and then, when Stalin showed signs of consciousness, dropped to his knees and kissed his hand. When Stalin fell unconscious again, Beria immediately stood and spat.[citation needed]
Later analysis of death
In 2003, a joint group of Russian and American historians announced their view that Stalin ingested warfarin, a powerful rat poison that inhibits coagulation of the blood and which predisposes the victim to hemorrhagic stroke (cerebral hemorrhage). Since it is flavorless, warfarin is a plausible weapon of murder. The facts surrounding Stalin's death will probably never be known with certainty.[258]
His demise arrived at a convenient time for Lavrenty Beria and others, who feared being swept away in yet another purge. It is believed[who?] that Stalin felt Beria's power was too great and threatened his own. According to Molotov's memoirs, Beria claimed to have poisoned Stalin, saying, "I took him out." Whether Beria or anyone else was directly responsible for Stalin's death, it is true that the Politburo did not summon medical attention for Stalin for more than a day after he was found.[259]
Reaction by successors
Grutas Park is home to a monument of Stalin, originally set up in Vilnius.
Monument to Stalin stood in Gori, Georgia until 2010 when it was demolished and moved to the Museum of Soviet Occupation.
The harshness with which Soviet affairs were conducted during Stalin's rule was subsequently repudiated by his successors in the Communist Party leadership, most notably by Nikita Khrushchev's repudiation of Stalinism in February 1956. In his "Secret Speech", On the Personality Cult and its Consequences, delivered to a closed session of the 20th Party Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Khrushchev denounced Stalin for his cult of personality, and his regime for "violation of Leninist norms of legality".
Views on Stalin in Russian Federation
Results of a controversial poll taken in 2006 stated that over thirty-five percent of Russians would vote for Stalin if he were still alive.[260][261] Fewer than a third of all Russians regarded Stalin as a murderous tyrant;[262] however, a Russian court in 2009, ruling on a suit by Stalin's grandson, Yevgeny Dzhugashvili, against the newspaper, Novaya Gazeta, ruled that referring to Stalin as a "bloodthirsty cannibal" was not libel.[263] In a July 2007 poll 54 percent of the Russian youth agreed that Stalin did more good than bad while 46 percent (of them) disagreed that Stalin was a cruel tyrant. Half of the respondents, aged from 16 to 19, agreed Stalin was a wise leader.[264]
In December 2008 Stalin was voted third in the nationwide television project Name of Russia (narrowly behind 13th century prince Alexander Nevsky and Pyotr Stolypin, one of Nicholas II's prime ministers), leading to accusations from Communist Party of the Russian Federation that the poll had been rigged in order to prevent him or Lenin being given first place.[265]
On 3 July 2009, Russia's delegates walked out of an Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe session to demonstrate their objections to a resolution for a remembrance day for the victims of both Nazism and Stalinism.[266] Only eight out of 385 assembly members voted against the resolution.[266]
In a Kremlin video blog posted on October 29, 2009, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev denounced the efforts of people seeking to rehabilitate Stalin's image. He said the mass extermination during the Stalin era cannot be justified.[267]
Personal life
Origin of name, nicknames and pseudonyms
Stalin's original Georgian is transliterated as "Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili" (Georgian: იოსებ ბესრიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი). The Russian transliteration of his name (Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили) is in turn transliterated to English as "Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili". Like other Bolsheviks, he became commonly known by one of his revolutionary noms de guerre, of which "Stalin" was only the last. Prior nicknames included "Koba", "Soselo", "Ivanov" and many others.[268]
Stalin is believed to have started using the name "K. Stalin" sometime in 1912 as a pen name.
During Stalin's reign his nicknames included:
"Uncle Joe", by western media, during and after the World War II.[269][270]
"Kremlin Highlander" (Russian: кремлевский горец), in reference his Caucasus Mountains origin, notably by Osip Mandelstam in his Stalin Epigram.
"Little Father of the Peoples" or "Papa Stalin". A common nickname in the USSR during his time in power, as he was portrayed as the paternal figure of the Revolution.[271][272][273][274]
Appearance
While photographs and portraits portray Stalin as physically massive and majestic (he had several painters shot who did not depict him "right"),[275] he was only five feet four inches high (160 cm).[275] (President Harry S. Truman, who stood only five feet nine inches himself, described Stalin as "a little squirt".[276]) His mustached face was fleshy and pock-marked, and his black hair later turned grey and thinned out. After a carriage accident in his youth, his left arm was shortened and stiffened at the elbow, while his right hand was thinner than his left and frequently hidden.[275] His dental health also deteriorated as he got older—when he died, he only had three of his own teeth remaining.[277] He could be charming and polite, mainly towards visiting statesmen,[275] but was generally coarse, rude, and abusive.[278] In movies, Stalin was often played by Mikheil Gelovani and, less frequently, by Aleksei Dikiy.
Marriages and family
Ekaterina "Kato" Svanidze, Stalin's first wife
Stalin and Nadezhda Alliluyeva
Stalin's son Yakov, whom he had with his first wife Ekaterina Svanidze, shot himself because of Stalin's harshness toward him, but survived. After this, Stalin said "He can't even shoot straight".[279] Yakov served in the Red Army during World War II and was captured by the Germans. They offered to exchange him for Field Marshal Friedrich Paulus, who had surrendered after Stalingrad, but Stalin turned the offer down, stating "You have in your hands not only my son Yakov but millions of my sons. Either you free them all or my son will share their fate."[280] Afterwards, Yakov is said to have committed suicide, running into an electric fence in Sachsenhausen concentration camp, where he was being held.[281] Yakov had a son Yevgeny, who is recently noted for defending his grandfather's legacy in Russian courts.
Stalin had a son, Vasiliy, and a daughter, Svetlana, with his second wife Nadezhda Alliluyeva. She died in 1932, officially of illness. She may have committed suicide by shooting herself after a quarrel with Stalin, leaving a suicide note which according to their daughter was "partly personal, partly political".[282] According to A&E Biography, there is also a belief among some Russians that Stalin himself murdered his wife after the quarrel, which apparently took place at a dinner in which Stalin tauntingly flicked cigarettes across the table at her. Historians also claim her death ultimately "severed his link from reality."[283]
Vasiliy rose through the ranks of the Soviet air force, officially dying of alcoholism in 1962; however, this is still in question. He distinguished himself in World War II as a capable airman. Svetlana emigrated to the United States in 1967. Stalin may have married a third wife, Rosa Kaganovich, the sister of Lazar Kaganovich.[284] In March 2001 Russian Independent Television NTV interviewed a previously unknown grandson living in Novokuznetsk, Yuri Davydov, who stated that his father had told him of his lineage, but, was told to keep quiet because of the campaign against Stalin's cult of personality.
Beside his suite in the Kremlin, Stalin had numerous domiciles. In 1919 he started with a country house near Usovo, he added dachas at Zuvalova and Kuntsevo (Blizhny dacha built by Miron Merzhanov). Before WWII he added the Lipki estate and Semyonovskaya, and had at least four dachas in the south by 1937, including one near Sochi. A luxury villa near Gagri was given to him by Beria. In Abkhazia he maintained a mountain retreat. After the war he added dachas at Novy Alon, near Sukhumi, in the Valdai Hills, and at Lake Mitsa. Another estate was near Zelyony Myss on the Black Sea. All these dachas, estates, and palaces were staffed, well furnished and equipped, kept safe by security forces, and were mainly used privately, rarely for diplomatic purposes.[285] Between places Stalin would travel by car or train, never by air; he flew only once when attending the 1943 Tehran conference.
Habits
Stalin enjoyed heavy drinking, but could keep it under control.[286] He would also often force those around him to join in the drinking.[286] Stalin preferred Georgian wine over Russian vodka, but usually ate traditional Russian food.[286]
Khrushchev reports in his memoirs that Stalin was fond of American cowboy movies.[287] He would often sleep until evening in his dacha, and after waking up summon high-ranking Soviet politicians to watch foreign movies with him in the Kremlin movie theater.[287] The movies, being in foreign languages, were given a running translation.[287] After the movie had ended, Stalin often invited the audience for dinner, even though the clock was usually past midnight.[287]
Religious beliefs and policies
Stalin had a complex relationship with religious institutions in the Soviet Union.[288] One story reports that while he studied at a seminary, he became a closet atheist.[289] However, this story fails on several obvious accounts, including Stalin's remaining religious, even pious, for some years longer.[290] One account states that Stalin's reversal on bans against the church during World War II followed a sign that he believed he received from heaven.[291]
Historian Edvard Radzinsky used recently discovered secret archives and noted a story that changed Stalin's attitude toward religion.[291] The story in which Ilya, Metropolitan of the Lebanon Mountains, claimed to receive a sign from heaven that "The churches and monasteries must be reopened throughout the country. Priests must be brought back from imprisonment, Leningrad must not be surrendered, but the sacred icon of Our Lady of Kazan should be carried around the city boundary, taken on to Moscow, where a service should be held, and thence to Stalingrad Tsaritsyn."[291]
Shortly thereafter, Stalin's attitude changed and "Whatever the reason, after his mysterious retreat, he began making his peace with God. Something happened which no historian has yet written about. On his orders many priests were brought back to the camps. In Leningrad, besieged by the Germans and gradually dying of hunger, the inhabitants were astounded, and uplifted, to see wonder-working icon Our Lady of Kazan brought out into the streets and borne in procession."[291] Radzinsky asked, "Had he seen the light? Had fear made him run to his Father? Had the Marxist God-Man simply decided to exploit belief in God? Or was it all of these things at once?."[291]
During the Second World War Stalin reopened the Churches. One reason could have been to motivate the majority of the population who had Christian beliefs. The reasoning behind this is that by changing the official policy of the party and the state towards religion, the Church and its clergymen could be to his disposal in mobilizing the war effort. On 4 September 1943, Stalin invited Metropolitan Sergius, Metropolitan Alexy and Metropolitan Nikolay to the Kremlin and proposed to reestablish the Moscow Patriarchate, which had been suspended since 1925, and elect the Patriarch. On 8 September 1943, Metropolitan Sergius was elected Patriarch.
Another reason that may have motivated this greater tolerance after the war, was the great failure of the persecutions of the 1920s and 1930s to actually achieve the intended result of eliminating religion.
The CPSU Central Committee continued to promote atheism and the elimination of religion during the remainder of Stalin's lifetime after the 1943 concordat.[292] Stalin's greater tolerance for religion after 1943 was limited, and persecutions resumed at the end of the war, although on a lesser scale than had been existent in the 1930s. For these reasons it is unlikely that Stalin had changed his atheistic rejection of religion during this last portion of his lifetime.
Stalin meluncurkan ekonomi komando, menggantikan Kebijakan Ekonomi Baru tahun 1920-an dengan Rencana Lima Tahun dan meluncurkan periode cepat industrialisasi dan kolektivisasi ekonomi. Pergolakan di sektor pertanian terganggu produksi pangan, mengakibatkan kelaparan luas, termasuk bencana kelaparan Soviet 1932-1933 (dikenal di Ukraina sebagai Holodomor).[3]
Selama akhir 1930-an, Stalin meluncurkan Pembersihan Besar (juga dikenal sebagai "Teror Besar"), sebuah kampanye untuk membersihkan Partai Komunis dari orang yang dituduh sabotase, terorisme, atau pengkhianatan, ia diperluas ke militer lain sektor dan Soviet masyarakat. Dalam prakteknya, pembersihan yang sembarangan. Target sering dieksekusi, dipenjara di kamp kerja paksa Gulag atau diasingkan. Pada tahun-tahun yang diikuti, jutaan anggota etnis minoritas juga dideportasi.[4][5]
Pada tahun 1939, setelah gagal upaya untuk membangun sistem keamanan kolektif di Eropa,[rujukan?][klarifikasi diperlukan] Stalin menandatangani pakta non-agresi dengan Nazi Jerman, diikuti oleh invasi Soviet Polandia, Finlandia, yang Baltik, Bessarabia dan utara Bukovina. Setelah Jerman melanggar perjanjian itu pada tahun 1941, Uni Soviet bergabung dengan Sekutu untuk memainkan peran utama dalam kekalahan Axis, pada biaya angka kematian terbesar untuk setiap negara dalam perang (sebagian besar disebabkan oleh kematian massal warga sipil di wilayah diduduki oleh Nazi). Setelah perang, Stalin diinstal pemerintah komunis tunduk di kebanyakan negara di Eropa Timur, membentuk blok Timur, di balik apa yang disebut sebagai "Tirai Besi"dari pemerintahan Soviet selama Perang Dingin.
Stalin dipupuk suatu kultus kepribadian sekitar dirinya, namun setelah kematiannya, penerusnya, Nikita Khrushchev, mencela warisannya dan melaju proses de-Stalinisasi Uni Soviet.[6]
Isi [hide]
1 Awal kehidupan
2 Revolusi, Perang Sipil dan Perang Polandia-Soviet
2.1 Peran selama Revolusi Rusia 1917
2.2 Peran dalam Perang Saudara Rusia, 1917-1919
2.3 Peran dalam Perang Soviet-Polandia, 1919-1921
3 Naik ke kekuasaan
4 Perubahan masyarakat Soviet, 1927-1939
4.1 Soviet memperkuat layanan rahasia dan intelijen
4.2 Cult kepribadian
4.3 pembersihan dan deportasi
4.4 Kolektivisasi
4.5 kelaparan
4.6 Industrialisasi
4.7 Ilmu
4.8 Jasa pelayanan sosial
4.9 Budaya
4.10 Agama
4.11 teori
5 Menghitung jumlah korban
6 Perang Dunia II, 1939-1945
6.1 Pakta dengan Hitler
6.2 Menerapkan pembagian Eropa Timur dan invasi lainnya
6.3 Hitler istirahat pakta
6.4 Soviet menghentikan Jerman
6,5 Soviet push ke Jerman
6.6 Final kemenangan
6.7 Nobel Perdamaian nominasi
6.8 dipertanyakan taktik
6.9 Sekutu konferensi pada pasca-perang Eropa
7 Pasca-perang era, 1945-1953
7.1 Para Tirai Besi dan Blok Timur
7.2 Hubungan Sino-Soviet
7.3 Korea Utara
7.4 Israel
7,5 Falsifiers Sejarah
7.6 Domestik Dukungan
7.7 "Dokter 'plot"
8 Kematian dan sesudahnya
8.1 Kemudian analisis kematian
8.2 Reaksi oleh para penerusnya
8.3 Pandangan tentang Stalin di Federasi Rusia
9 Kehidupan pribadi
9.1 Asal nama, julukan dan samaran
9.2 Penampilan
9.3 Perkawinan dan keluarga
9.4 Kebiasaan
9.5 Agama keyakinan dan kebijakan
10 Hipotesis, rumor dan kesalahpahaman tentang Stalin
11 Pekerjaan
12 Lihat juga
13 Referensi
13.1 Catatan
13.2 Bibliografi
13.3 Bacaan lebih lanjut
14 Pranala luar
Kehidupan awal
Artikel utama: Awal kehidupan Joseph Stalin
Young Stalin, sekitar tahun 1894, usia 16
Stalin lahir Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili (Georgia: იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი) pada tanggal 18 Desember 1878[2] ke tukang sepatu di kota Gori, Georgia. Pada usia tujuh tahun, ia dikontrak cacar, yang permanen bekas luka wajahnya. Pada pukul sepuluh, ia mulai bersekolah gereja dimana anak-anak Georgia terpaksa berbahasa Rusia. Pada usia dua belas tahun, kecelakaan kereta yang ditarik kuda tinggal dua lengan kirinya rusak secara permanen. Pada enam belas, ia menerima beasiswa ke Ortodoks Georgia seminari, di mana ia memberontak melawan imperialis dan ketertiban agama. Meskipun ia tampil baik di sana, ia dikeluarkan pada tahun 1899 setelah absen ujian akhir. seminari's catatan menyarankan ia tidak mampu untuk membayar biaya pendidikan itu.[7]
Kartu informasi mengenai "IV Stalin", dari file-file dari polisi rahasia Tsar di Saint Petersburg, 1911[8]
Tak lama setelah meninggalkan seminari itu, Stalin menemukan tulisan-tulisan Vladimir Lenin dan memutuskan untuk menjadi seorang revolusioner Marxis, Lenin akhirnya bergabung dengan Bolshevik pada tahun 1903. Setelah ditandai dengan Okhranka (polisi rahasia Tsar) untuk aktivitasnya, ia menjadi full-time revolusioner dan penjahat. Ia menjadi salah satu Bolshevikkoperasi kepala 'di Kaukasus, pengorganisasian paramiliter, menghasut pemogokan, menyebarkan propaganda dan meningkatkan uang melalui perampokan bank, tebusan penculikan dan pemerasan.
Pada musim panas tahun 1906, Stalin menikah Ekaterina Svanidze, yang kemudian melahirkan anak pertama Stalin, Yakov. Stalin sementara mengundurkan diri dari partai atas larangan perampokan bank, mendalangi serangan besar di pengiriman bank yang mengakibatkan kematian 40 orang[9] dan kemudian melarikan diri ke Baku, di mana Ekaterina meninggal karena tifus. Di Baku, Stalin terorganisir Muslim Azerbaijan dan Persia dalam kegiatan partisan, termasuk pembunuhan banyak "Ratusan Hitam"pendukung sayap kanan Tsar, dan melakukan raket perlindungan, tebusan penculikan, pemalsuan operasi dan perampokan.
Stalin ditangkap dan dikirim ke Siberia tujuh kali, tetapi melarikan diri sebagian besar orang buangan. Setelah dibebaskan dari satu pengasingan tersebut, pada bulan April 1912 di Saint Petersburg, Stalin menciptakan koran Pravda dari koran partai yang ada. Dia akhirnya mengadopsi nama "Stalin", dari kata Rusia untuk baja, yang digunakan sebagai alias dan nama pena dalam menerbitkan karya-karyanya.
Selama pengasingan terakhirnya, Stalin diwajibkan oleh tentara Rusia untuk bertarung di Perang Dunia I, tetapi dianggap tidak layak untuk pelayanan karena lengan kirinya rusak.[10]
Revolusi, Perang Saudara, dan Perang Polandia-Soviet
Artikel utama: Joseph Stalin dalam Revolusi Rusia, Perang Saudara Rusia, dan Perang Polandia-Soviet
Peran selama Revolusi Rusia 1917
Setelah kembali ke Saint Petersburg dari pengasingan, Stalin terguling Vyacheslav Molotov dan Alexander Shlyapnikov sebagai editor Pravda. Ia kemudian mengambil posisi mendukung mendukung Alexander Kerensky's pemerintah sementara. Namun, setelah Lenin menang di Partai 1917 konferensi April, Stalin dan Pravda didukung menggulingkan pemerintah sementara. Pada konferensi ini, Stalin terpilih untuk Komite Sentral Bolshevik. Setelah Lenin berpartisipasi dalam sebuah revolusi berusaha, Stalin membantu Lenin menghindari penangkapan dan, untuk menghindari pertumpahan darah, memerintahkan Bolshevik terkepung untuk menyerah.[8]
Dia menyelundupkan Lenin ke Finlandia dan diasumsikan kepemimpinan Bolshevik.[8] Setelah Bolshevik dipenjara dibebaskan untuk membantu mempertahankan Saint Petersburg, pada bulan Oktober 1917, Komite Sentral Bolshevik memberikan suara mendukung sebuah pemberontakan.[8] Pada tanggal 7 November, dari yang Smolny Institute, Stalin, Lenin dan sisanya dari Komite Sentral terkoordinasi kudeta terhadap pemerintah Kerensky-yang disebut Revolusi Oktober. Kerensky meninggalkan modal untuk rally pasukan Imperial di depan Jerman. 8 November, Istana Musim Dingin telah menyerbu dan Kerensky Kabinet telah ditangkap.
Peran dalam Perang Saudara Rusia, 1917-1919
Joseph Stalin, Vladimir Lenin, dan Mikhail Kalinin pertemuan di tahun 1919. Ketiga dari mereka "Bolshevik Lama"-anggota Bolshevik partai sebelum Revolusi Rusia tahun 1917.
Setelah merebut Petrograd, Stalin diangkat Rakyat Commissar untuk 'Urusan kebangsaan.[11] Setelah itu, perang saudara pecah di Rusia, pitting Lenin Red Army terhadap Tentara Putih, sebuah aliansi longgar kekuatan anti-Bolshevik. Lenin membentuk lima anggota Politbiro yang termasuk Stalin dan Trotsky. Pada bulan Mei 1918, Lenin Stalin dikirim ke kota Tsaritsyn. Melalui sekutu barunya, Kliment Voroshilov dan Semyon Budyonny, Stalin dikenakan pengaruhnya di militer.[11]
Stalin menantang banyak keputusan Trotsky, memerintahkan pembunuhan Tsar banyak mantan perwira di Tentara Merah dan kontra-revolusioner[11][12] dan desa-desa dibakar dalam rangka untuk mengintimidasi kaum tani menjadi tunduk dan mencegah serangan bandit pada pengiriman makanan.[11] Pada bulan Mei 1919, dalam rangka membendung desersi massa di bagian depan Barat, Stalin desertir dan murtad publik dijalankan sebagai pengkhianat.[11]
Peran dalam Perang Polandia-Soviet, 1919-1921
Setelah mereka Perang Saudara Rusia kemenangan, kaum Bolshevik bergerak untuk mendirikan sebuah lingkup pengaruh di Eropa Tengah, dimulai dengan apa yang menjadi Perang Polandia-Soviet. Sebagai komandan dari front selatan,[11] Stalin bertekad untuk mengambil-menguasai kota Polandia Lviv. Ini bertentangan dengan strategi umum yang ditetapkan oleh Lenin dan Trotsky, yang difokuskan pada penangkapan Warsawa utara lebih lanjut.
Trotskys 'pasukan terlibat dengan orang-orang dari komandan Polandia Władysław Sikorski pada Pertempuran Warsawa, tetapi Stalin menolak untuk mengarahkan pasukannya dari Lviv untuk membantu.[11] Akibatnya, pertempuran untuk kedua Lviv dan Warsawa hilang, yang Stalin dipersalahkan . Stalin kembali ke Moskow pada Agustus 1920, di mana ia membela dirinya sendiri dan mengundurkan diri komisi militer.[11] Pada Kesembilan Konferensi Partai pada tanggal 22 September, Trotsky secara terbuka mengkritik's perilaku Stalin.[11]
Kemudian karirnya, Stalin adalah untuk mengkompensasi bencana 1920.[13] Ia akan menjamin kematian Trotsky, Lviv aman dalam pakta Nazi-Soviet, melaksanakan veteran Polandia -Soviet Perang Polandia dalam pembantaian Katyn; mendirikan dengan pengambilalihan Soviet di Eropa Timur, dan di Yalta, permintaan yang Lviv akan diserahkan oleh Polandia ke Uni Soviet.[13][14]
Naik ke kekuasaan
Artikel utama: Rise of Joseph Stalin
Stalin memainkan peranan penting dalam rekayasa 1921 invasi Tentara Merah Georgia, berikut ini yang diadopsi khususnya garis keras, kebijakan sentralistis terhadap Soviet Georgia, yang termasuk Affair Georgia tahun 1922 dan represi lainnya.[15][16] Hal ini menciptakan sebuah celah dengan Lenin, yang percaya bahwa semua negara Soviet harus berdiri sama.
Lenin masih dianggap Stalin sebagai sekutu setia, dan ketika ia mendapat terperosok dalam percekcokan dengan Trotsky dan politisi lain, ia memutuskan untuk memberikan lebih banyak kekuatan Stalin. Dengan bantuan Kamenev, Lenin Stalin diangkat sebagai Sekretaris Jenderal pada tahun 1922.[11] Posting ini memungkinkan Stalin untuk menunjuk banyak sekutu untuk posisi pemerintah.
Lenin menderita stroke pada 1922, memaksa dia ke semi-pensiun di Gorki. Stalin sering mengunjunginya, bertindak sebagai perantara dengan dunia luar.[11] Pasangan ini bertengkar dan hubungan mereka memburuk.[11] Lenin didikte semakin meremehkan catatan tentang Stalin pada apa yang akan menjadi wasiat. Dia mengkritik sikap kasar's Stalin, ambisi yang berlebihan, kekuasaan dan politik, dan menyarankan bahwa Stalin harus dihapus dari posisi Sekretaris Jenderal.[11] Selama semi-Lenin pensiun itu, Stalin menjalin kemitraan dengan Kamenev dan Grigory Zinoviev terhadap Trotsky. Sekutu ini dicegah Lenin Perjanjian dari yang diturunkan kepada kedua belas Partai Kongres pada April 1923.[11]
Lenin meninggal karena serangan jantung pada tanggal 21 Januari 1924. Sekali lagi, Kamenev dan Zinoviev membantu untuk menjaga's Perjanjian Lenin dari go publik. Setelah itu,'s sengketa Stalin dengan Kamenev dan Zinoviev diintensifkan. Trotsky, Kamenev dan Zinoviev tumbuh semakin terisolasi, dan akhirnya dikeluarkan dari Komite Sentral dan kemudian dari Partai itu sendiri.[11] Kamenev dan Zinoviev kemudian diterima kembali, tapi Trotsky diasingkan dari Uni Soviet.
Stalin mendorong industrialisasi yang lebih cepat dan kontrol pusat ekonomi, melanggar Lenin Kebijakan Ekonomi Baru. Pada akhir 1927, kekurangan penting dalam persediaan gandum diminta Stalin untuk mendorong kolektivisasi pertanian dan ketertiban kejang dari menimbun gandum dari kulak petani.[11][12] Bukharin dan Premier Rykov menyerang kebijakan-kebijakan ini dan menganjurkan kembali ke NEP, tetapi sisa Politbiro sisi dengan Stalin dan dihapus Bukharin dari Politbiro pada bulan November 1929. Rykov dipecat pada tahun berikutnya, dan digantikan oleh Vyacheslav Molotov di's rekomendasi Stalin.
Pada bulan Desember 1934, yang populer Sergei Kirov dibunuh. Stalin menyalahkan's pembunuhan Kirov pada konspirasi besar penyabot dan Trotskyites. Dia melancarkan pembersihan besar-besaran terhadap musuh-musuh internal, menempatkan mereka pada dicurangi percobaan menunjukkan dan kemudian setelah mereka dieksekusi atau dipenjarakan di gulag di Siberia. Di antara korban adalah musuh-musuh lama, termasuk Bukharin, Rykov, Kamenev dan Zinoviev. Stalin membuat setia Nikolai Yezhov kepala polisi rahasia, NKVD, dan menyuruhnya membersihkan NKVD dari Bolshevik veteran. Dengan tidak ada lawan serius yang tersisa di kekuasaan, Stalin mengakhiri pembersihan pada tahun 1938. Yezhov diadakan untuk disalahkan atas ekses dari Teror Besar, dan diberhentikan dan kemudian dieksekusi.
Perubahan masyarakat Soviet, 1927-1939
Memperkuat layanan rahasia Soviet dan kecerdasan
Artikel utama: Kronologis lembaga polisi rahasia Soviet
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Stalin sangat meningkatkan cakupan dan kekuatan polisi rahasia negara dan badan-badan intelijen. Di bawah membimbing tangannya, pasukan intelijen Soviet mulai mendirikan jaringan intelijen di sebagian besar negara-negara utama dunia, termasuk Jerman (yang terkenal Rote Kappelle cincin mata-mata), Inggris, Perancis, Jepang, dan Amerika Serikat. Stalin tidak melihat perbedaan antara spionase, komunis tindakan propaganda politik, dan negara-kekerasan sanksi, dan ia mulai mengintegrasikan semua kegiatan dalam NKVD. Stalin memanfaatkan besar dari Komunis Internasional gerakan untuk menyusup agen dan untuk memastikan bahwa partai komunis asing tetap pro-Soviet dan pro-Stalin.
Salah satu contoh terbaik dari kemampuan Stalin untuk mengintegrasikan polisi rahasia dan spionase asing datang pada 1940, ketika ia memberikan persetujuan untuk polisi rahasia untuk memiliki Leon Trotsky dibunuh di Meksiko.[17]
Cult kepribadian
Stalin menciptakan sebuah kultus pribadi di Uni Soviet sekitar kedua dirinya dan Lenin. kultus Banyak kepribadian dalam sejarah telah sering diukur dan dibandingkan dengan Nya. Banyak kota-kota, desa dan kota diberi nama setelah pemimpin Uni Soviet (lihat Daftar tempat bernama setelah Stalin) dan Hadiah Stalin dan Stalin Peace Prize diberi nama untuk menghormatinya. Dia menerima gelar muluk-muluk (misalnya "dirigen Sains, "" Bapak Bangsa, "" Brilliant Genius Kemanusiaan, "" Great Arsitek komunisme, "" Gardener Kebahagiaan Manusia, "dan lain-lain), dan membantu menulis ulang sejarah Soviet untuk menyediakan dirinya yang signifikan peran yang lebih dalam revolusi. Pada saat yang sama, menurut Khrushchev, dia bersikeras bahwa dia akan dikenang "karakteristik kesantunan luar biasa yang benar-benar orang-orang hebat." Patung Stalin menggambarkan dia di ketinggian dan membangun mendekati Alexander III, sedangkan bukti foto menunjukkan dia adalah antara 5 ft 5 in dan 5 ft 6 in (165-168 cm).[18]
Trotsky mengkritik kultus kepribadian dibangun di sekitar Stalin. Ini mencapai tingkat baru selama Perang Dunia II, dengan nama Stalin dimasukkan dalam Soviet baru lagu kebangsaan. Stalin menjadi fokus sastra, puisi, musik, lukisan dan film, menunjukkan pengabdian menjilat, mengkredit Stalin dengan dewa-seperti kualitas hampir, dan menyarankan dia seorang diri memenangkan Perang Dunia Kedua. Hal ini bisa diperdebatkan seperti bagaimana Stalin banyak menikmati kultus sekitarnya. Para komunis Finlandia Tuominen catatan bersulang sarkastik diusulkan oleh Stalin pada Tahun Baru Partai pada tahun 1935 di mana ia berkata, "Kamerad inginkan! saya mengusulkan bersulang untuk hidup, kita patriark dan matahari, pembebas bangsa, arsitek [sosialisme ia terguncang off semua appellations diterapkan untuk dia di hari-hari] - Josef Stalin Vissarionovich, dan saya berharap ini adalah pidato pertama dan terakhir dibuat untuk jenius bahwa malam ini ".[19]
Dalam pidato tahun 1956, Nikita Khrushchev memberikan kecaman dari Teman-tindakan Stalin: "Ini adalah tidak diperbolehkan dan asing dengan semangat Marxisme-Leninisme untuk mengangkat satu orang, untuk mengubahnya menjadi superman yang memiliki karakteristik supernatural mirip dengan yang dari Tuhan."[6]
Pembersihan dan deportasi
Pembersihan
Artikel utama: Great Purge
Waktu: Beria's Januari 1940 surat kepada Stalin, meminta izin untuk mengeksekusi 346 "musuh Partai Komunis Uni Soviet dan dari pemerintah Soviet"yang melakukan" kontra-revolusioner, kanan Trotskyis merencanakan dan memata-matai kegiatan "
Tengah: Stalin tulisan tangan: "за" (dukungan).
Kanan: Politbiro's Keputusan ditandatangani oleh Sekretaris Stalin
Stalin, sebagai kepala Politbiro, listrik di dekat-mutlak konsolidasi tahun 1930-an dengan Pembersihan Besar partai, dibenarkan sebagai upaya untuk mengusir 'oportunis' dan '-revolusioner penyusup counter'.[20][21] Mereka sasaran membersihkan sering diusir dari partai, lebih parah namun tindakan berkisar dari pembuangan ke Gulag kamp kerja paksa, untuk eksekusi setelah uji coba yang diselenggarakan oleh troikas NKVD.[20][22][23]
Pada 1930, Stalin tampaknya menjadi semakin khawatir tentang semakin populernya Sergei Kirov. Pada 1934 Partai Kongres dimana memilih Komite Sentral baru diadakan, Kirov menerima hanya tiga suara negatif, yang paling kecil dari setiap calon, sedangkan Stalin menerima 1.108 suara negatif.[24] Setelah pembunuhan Kirov, yang mungkin telah diatur oleh Stalin, Stalin menciptakan skema rinci untuk melibatkan pemimpin oposisi dalam pembunuhan, termasuk Trotsky, Kamenev dan Zinoviev.[25] The penyidikan dan pengadilan diperluas.[26] Stalin mengesahkan undang-undang baru tentang "organisasi teroris dan tindakan teroris", yang itu harus diselidiki untuk tidak lebih dari sepuluh hari, tanpa penuntutan, pengacara pembela atau banding, diikuti dengan kalimat yang dijalankan "dengan cepat."[27]
Setelah itu, beberapa percobaan yang dikenal sebagai Moskow Ujian diadakan, tetapi prosedur direplikasi di seluruh negeri. Pasal 58 dari kode hukum, daftar dilarang kegiatan anti-Soviet sebagai kejahatan kontra diterapkan dengan cara yang luas.[28] The dalih flimsiest sering cukup untuk seseorang merek sebuah "musuh rakyat", memulai siklus penganiayaan publik dan pelecehan, seringkali melanjutkan ke interogasi, penyiksaan dan deportasi, jika tidak mati. The troika kata Rusia memperoleh arti baru: sebuah disederhanakan, sidang cepat oleh sebuah komite tiga subordinasi untuk NKVD -troika NKVDdengan hukuman dilakukan dalam waktu 24 jam. -[27]
Nikolai Yezhov, pemuda berjalan dengan Stalin di foto atas dari tahun 1930-an, ditembak pada tahun 1940. Setelah kematiannya, Yezhov keluar diedit dari foto dengan sensor Soviet.[29] retouching tersebut adalah kejadian umum selama ini pemerintahan Stalin.
pemimpin militer Banyak yang dihukum karena pengkhianatan, dan skala besar pembersihan Red Army perwira diikuti.[30] Represi peringkat revolusioner banyak sebelumnya tinggi sehingga dan anggota partai menyebabkan Leon Trotsky untuk mengklaim bahwa "sungai darah" dipisahkan rezim Stalin dari Lenin.[31] Pada bulan Agustus 1940, Trotsky dibunuh di Meksiko, di mana ia telah tinggal di pengasingan sejak Januari 1937, ini menghilangkan terakhir itu lawan Stalin antara kepemimpinan Partai mantan.[32] hanya tiga "Old Bolshevik"(Lenin Politbiro) yang tersisa adalah Stalin, Mikhail Kalinin, dan Ketua Sovnarkom Vyacheslav Molotov.
operasi Massa dari NKVD juga ditargetkan "kontingen nasional" (etnis asing) seperti Polandia, suku Jerman, Korea, dll Sebanyak 350.000 (144.000 dari mereka Polandia) ditangkap dan 247.157 (110.000 Polandia) dieksekusi.[12] Banyak orang Amerika yang berimigrasi ke Uni Soviet selama terburuk Depresi Besar itu dijalankan; lainnya dikirim ke kamp-kamp penjara atau gulag.[33] Bersamaan dengan pembersihan, upaya dilakukan untuk menulis ulang sejarah dalam buku teks dan bahan propaganda Soviet lainnya . orang terkenal dieksekusi oleh NKVD telah dihapus dari teks dan foto-foto seolah-olah mereka tidak pernah ada. Secara bertahap, sejarah revolusi berubah untuk cerita tentang dua karakter utama: Lenin dan Stalin.
Dalam terang wahyu dari arsip Soviet, sejarawan kini memperkirakan bahwa hampir 700.000 orang (353.074 pada tahun 1937 dan 328.612 pada 1938) dieksekusi dalam perjalanan teror,[34] dengan massa korban yang sangat banyak yang "biasa" warga Soviet: buruh, petani, ibu rumah tangga, guru, imam, musisi, tentara, pensiunan, balerina, pengemis.[35][36] Beberapa ahli percaya bukti dilepaskan dari arsip Soviet bersahaja, tidak lengkap atau tidak dapat diandalkan.[37][38][39][40][41] Sebagai contoh, Robert Conquest menunjukkan bahwa angka kemungkinan untuk eksekusi selama tahun-tahun Pembersihan Besar tidak 681.692, namun beberapa dua setengah kali lebih tinggi. Ia percaya bahwa KGB menutupi trek dengan memalsukan tanggal dan penyebab kematian korban direhabilitasi.[42]
Stalin secara pribadi ditandatangani 357 pelarangan daftar pada tahun 1937 dan 1938 yang mengutuk eksekusi sekitar 40.000 orang, dan sekitar 90% di antaranya dikonfirmasi telah ditembak.[43] Pada saat itu, saat meninjau salah satu daftar tersebut, Stalin dilaporkan bergumam kepada siapa pun khususnya: "akan mengingat semua ini riff-sampah dalam sepuluh atau dua puluh tahun Tidak ada waktu?'s. Who Siapa yang mengingat nama-nama sekarang dari bangsawan Ivan the Terrible dari? Tidak punya. satu menyingkirkan "[44] Di samping itu, Stalin dikirim kontingen NKVD operatif untuk Mongolia, mendirikan versi Mongolia dari troika NKVD dan melepaskan pembersihan berdarah di mana puluhan ribu orang dieksekusi sebagai 'Spies Jepang. " Mongolia penguasa Khorloogiin Choibalsan diikuti's memimpin Stalin.[45]
Penduduk transfer
Artikel utama: Penduduk transfer di Uni Soviet
Pertemuan di sel penjara, sebuah ilustrasi oleh Eufrosinia Kersnovskaya
Sesaat sebelum, selama dan segera setelah Perang Dunia II, Stalin melakukan serangkaian deportasi pada skala besar yang sangat mempengaruhi peta etnis Uni Soviet. Diperkirakan bahwa antara tahun 1941 dan 1949 hampir 3,3 juta[4] dideportasi ke Siberia dan republik Asia Tengah. Dengan beberapa perkiraan hingga 43% dari populasi dipindahkan meninggal karena penyakit dan kekurangan gizi.[46]
Separatisme, ketahanan terhadap pemerintahan Soviet dan kolaborasi dengan Jerman menyerang dikutip sebagai alasan resmi untuk deportasi, benar atau salah. keadaan individu dari mereka menghabiskan waktu di wilayah yang diduduki Jerman tidak diperiksa.[47] Setelah pendudukan Nazi singkat Kaukasus, seluruh penduduk lima dari masyarakat dataran tinggi kecil dan Tatar Krimea - lebih dari satu juta orang secara total - dideportasi tanpa pemberitahuan atau kesempatan apapun untuk mengambil harta mereka.[47]
Selama ini pemerintahan Stalin kelompok etnis berikut dideportasi sepenuhnya atau sebagian: Ukraina, Polandia, Rumania, Korea, Volga Jerman, Crimean Tatar, Kalmyks, Chechen, Ingush, Balkars, Karachays, Meskhetian Turki, Finlandia, Bulgaria, Yunani, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonians, dan Yahudi. Sejumlah besar kulak, terlepas dari kewarganegaraan mereka, yang dipindahkan ke Siberia dan Asia Tengah. Deportasi terjadi dalam kondisi yang mengerikan, seringkali dengan truk ternak, dan ratusan ribu dideportasi meninggal dalam perjalanan.[4] Mereka yang selamat dipaksa bekerja tanpa bayaran di kamp kerja paksa. Banyak dideportasi meninggal karena kelaparan atau kondisi lainnya.
Menurut perkiraan Soviet resmi, lebih dari 14 juta orang melewati Gulag 1929-1953, dengan 7 sampai 8 lebih juta yang dideportasi dan diasingkan ke daerah-daerah terpencil di Uni Soviet (termasuk seluruh bangsa dalam beberapa kasus).[48]
Pada bulan Februari 1956, Nikita Khrushchev mengutuk deportasi sebagai pelanggaran Leninisme, dan diputarbalikkan sebagian besar dari mereka, meskipun tidak sampai tahun 1991 bahwa Tatar, Meskhetians dan Volga Jerman diizinkan untuk kembali secara besar-besaran ke daerah asal mereka. Deportasi memiliki efek mendalam pada masyarakat Uni Soviet. Memori dari deportasi memainkan peranan utama dalam gerakan separatis di Amerika Baltik, Tatarstan , dan Chechnya, bahkan hari ini.
Kolektipisasi
Artikel utama: Kolektivisasi di Uni Soviet
rezim Stalin pindah untuk memaksa kolektivisasi pertanian. Ini dimaksudkan untuk meningkatkan hasil pertanian dari skala mekanik peternakan-besar, untuk membawa kaum tani di bawah pengawasan langsung politik lebih, dan untuk membuat koleksi pajak lebih efisien. Kolektivisasi berarti perubahan sosial drastis, pada skala yang tidak terlihat sejak penghapusan perhambaan pada tahun 1861, dan keterasingan dari kontrol atas tanah dan produknya. Kolektivisasi juga berarti penurunan drastis standar hidup bagi banyak petani, dan menghadapi reaksi keras di kalangan kaum tani.
Pada tahun-tahun pertama kolektivisasi diperkirakan bahwa produksi industri akan naik 200% dan produksi pertanian sebesar 50%,[49] namun perkiraan ini tidak dipenuhi. Stalin menyalahkan kegagalan ini tak terduga pada kulak (petani kaya), yang menolak kolektivisasi. (Namun, kulak tepat terdiri hanya 4% dari populasi petani, para "kulak" yang ditargetkan Stalin termasuk dari sedikit lebih baik-off petani mengambil siapa beban kekerasan OGPU dan Komsomol tersebut. ini petani sekitar 60% dari populasi). Mereka secara resmi didefinisikan sebagai "kulak," "pembantu kulak," dan kemudian "mantan-kulak" itu harus ditembak, ditempatkan dalam Gulag kamp kerja paksa, atau dideportasi ke daerah-daerah terpencil di negeri ini, tergantung pada tagihan. Archival data menunjukkan bahwa 20.201 orang telah dieksekusi selama tahun 1930, tahun Dekulakization.[45]
The-tahap kemajuan dua kolektivisasi-sela tahun dengan cara yang terkenal editorial's Stalin, "Dizzy dengan keberhasilan"[50] dan "Balas ke Kolektif Farm Kawan-kawan"[51]-merupakan contoh utama dari kapasitasnya untuk penarikan politik taktis diikuti oleh intensifikasi strategi awal.
Kelaparan
Kelaparan mempengaruhi bagian lain dari Uni Soviet. Jumlah korban tewas akibat kelaparan di Uni Soviet saat ini diperkirakan antara lima dan sepuluh juta orang.[52] Kegagalan panen terburuk dari tsar Rusia akhir, pada tahun 1892, telah menyebabkan 375.000 menjadi 400.000 kematian.[53] Kebanyakan sarjana modern setuju bahwa kelaparan tersebut disebabkan oleh kebijakan pemerintah Uni Soviet di bawah Stalin, bukan oleh alasan alami.[54]
Memasuki Gulag (daun dari Eufrosinia Kersnovskayanotebook s ')
Menurut Alan Bullock, "biji-bijian tanaman Soviet total tidak lebih buruk dari pada 1931 ... itu bukan gagal panen tetapi tuntutan yang berlebihan dari negara, kejam dipaksakan, bahwa biaya hidup sebanyak lima juta petani Ukraina . " Stalin menolak untuk melepaskan cadangan biji-bijian besar yang bisa meringankan bencana kelaparan, sambil terus ekspor gandum, ia yakin bahwa para petani Ukraina telah menyembunyikan gandum pergi, dan ketat kejam kolektif-pertanian pencurian undang-undang baru di respon.[55][56] sejarawan lain tahan sebagian besar panen tidak cukup 1931 dan 1932 disebabkan oleh berbagai bencana alam yang mengakibatkan kelaparan, dengan panen yang sukses tahun 1933 mengakhiri kelaparan.[57] Soviet dan sejarawan lain berpendapat bahwa kolektivisasi cepat pertanian diperlukan untuk mencapai cepat industrialisasi yang sama dari Uni Soviet dan akhirnya menang Perang Dunia II. Hal ini masih diperdebatkan oleh para sejarawan lainnya; Alec Nove mengklaim bahwa Uni Soviet meskipun industri, bukan karena, pertanian kolektif tersebut.
USSR juga mengalami kelaparan besar pada tahun 1947 sebagai akibat dari kerusakan akibat perang dan kekeringan berat, namun ekonom Michael Ellman berpendapat bahwa hal itu bisa dicegah jika pemerintah tidak salah mengurus cadangan biji-bijian tersebut. kelaparan Biaya sebuah 1 diperkirakan 1,5 juta jiwa serta kerugian populasi sekunder disebabkan oleh menurunnya kesuburan.[58]
Ukraina kelaparan
Artikel utama: Holodomor
Kelaparan Holodomor kadang-kadang disebut sebagai Ukraina Genosida, menyiratkan hal itu direkayasa oleh pemerintah Soviet, khususnya menargetkan orang Ukraina untuk menghancurkan bangsa Ukraina sebagai faktor politik dan entitas sosial.[59] Sementara sejarawan tetap tidak setuju apakah kebijakan yang menyebabkan jatuh Holodomor bawah definisi hukum genosida, 26 negara telah secara resmi mengakui Holodomor seperti itu. Pada tanggal 28 November 2006, Parlemen Ukraina menyetujui tagihan, sesuai dengan yang era-Soviet terpaksa kelaparan adalah tindakan genosida terhadap orang-orang Ukraina.[60] Profesor Michael Ellman menyimpulkan bahwa Ukraina menjadi korban genosida di 1932-1933, menurut lebih definisi santai, yang disukai oleh beberapa ahli di bidang studi genosida. Dia menegaskan bahwa kebijakan Soviet sangat diperburuk kematian tol kelaparan (seperti penggunaan penyiksaan dan eksekusi untuk mengekstrak biji-bijian (lihat Hukum Spikelets), dengan 1,8 juta ton dapat diekspor selama puncak-kelaparan cukup untuk memberi makan 5 juta orang selama satu tahun, penggunaan kekuatan untuk mencegah kelaparan petani dari melarikan diri dari daerah yang terkena dampak paling parah, dan penolakan untuk mengimpor gandum atau kemanusiaan bantuan internasional aman untuk meringankan penderitaan) dan bahwa Stalin dimaksudkan untuk digunakan sebagai kelaparan dan efisien berarti murah (sebagai lawan dari deportasi dan penembakan) untuk membunuh orang-orang yang dianggap "kontra-revolusioner," "pemalas," dan "pencuri," tapi tidak untuk memusnahkan kaum tani Ukraina secara keseluruhan. Ia juga mengklaim bahwa, sementara ini tidak Soviet genosida saja (misalnya The operasi Polandia NKVD), itu adalah yang terburuk dalam hal korban massa.[43]
Saat ini perkiraan jumlah korban dalam jangkauan Ukraina Uni Soviet kebanyakan dari 2,2 juta[61][62] sampai dengan 4 untuk 5 juta.[63][64][65]
Sebuah pengadilan Ukraina ditemukan Josef Stalin dan para pemimpin lainnya dari Uni Soviet bersalah karena genosida oleh "mengorganisir kelaparan massal di Ukraina pada 1932-1933" pada Januari 2010. Namun, pengadilan "turun proses pidana atas tersangka kematian itu".[66][67]
Industrialisasi
Para Perang Saudara Rusia dan komunisme perang memiliki efek buruk pada negara perekonomian. Produksi industri pada tahun 1922 adalah 13% dari tahun 1914. Sebuah pemulihan diikuti di bawah Kebijakan Ekonomi Baru, yang memungkinkan tingkat fleksibilitas pasar dalam konteks sosialisme. Under arah Stalin, ini diganti dengan sistem terpusat ditahbiskan "Tahun Rencana Lima" pada akhir tahun 1920. Ini menyerukan agar program yang sangat ambisius dari dipandu crash-negara industrialisasi dan kolektivisasi pertanian.
Dengan modal benih tersedia karena reaksi internasional untuk kebijakan Komunis, kecil perdagangan internasional, dan hampir tidak ada infrastruktur modern,'s pemerintah Stalin dibiayai industrialisasi baik dengan menahan konsumsi pada bagian warga Soviet biasa untuk memastikan modal yang pergi untuk kembali investasi ke dalam industri, dan kejam oleh ekstraksi kekayaan dari kulak.
Pada tahun 1933 pendapatan riil 'pekerja tenggelam sekitar sepersepuluh dari tingkat tahun 1926.[rujukan?] dan tahanan politik umum di kamp kerja dipaksa untuk melakukan kerja yang tidak dibayar, dan komunis dan Komsomol anggota sering "dimobilisasi" untuk berbagai proyek konstruksi. Uni Soviet digunakan ahli asing banyak, untuk merancang pabrik baru, mengawasi konstruksi, menginstruksikan pekerja dan meningkatkan proses manufaktur. Kontraktor luar negeri yang paling penting adalah Albert Kahn perusahaan yang dirancang dan dibangun 521 pabrik antara 1930 dan 1932. Sebagai aturan, pabrik disuplai dengan peralatan impor.
Terlepas dari kerusakan dini dan kegagalan, dua yang pertama-Rencana Lima Tahun dicapai industrialisasi yang pesat dari ekonomi basa rendah sangat. Meskipun umumnya sepakat bahwa Uni Soviet mencapai tingkat pertumbuhan ekonomi yang signifikan di bawah Stalin, laju pertumbuhan yang tepat adalah sengketa. Hal ini tidak diperdebatkan, bagaimanapun, bahwa keuntungan tersebut dicapai dengan biaya jutaan jiwa. Soviet resmi dinyatakan perkiraan tingkat pertumbuhan tahunan sebesar 13,9%, dan perkiraan Rusia Barat memberikan angka yang lebih rendah antara 5,8% dan bahkan 2,9%. Memang, salah satu perkiraan adalah bahwa pertumbuhan Soviet menjadi jauh lebih tinggi sementara setelah kematian Stalin.[68]
Menurut Robert Lewis Lima Tahun Rencana substansial membantu untuk memodernisasi ekonomi Soviet mundur sebelumnya. Produk baru dikembangkan, dan skala dan efisiensi produksi yang ada sangat meningkat. Beberapa inovasi tersebut berdasarkan perkembangan teknis adat, yang lain pada teknologi asing diimpor.[69] Meskipun biaya, upaya industrialisasi mengijinkan Uni Soviet untuk melawan, dan akhirnya menang, Perang Dunia II.
Ilmu pengetahuan
Artikel utama: Ilmu dan teknologi di Uni Soviet dan penelitian ditekan di Uni Soviet
Sains di Uni Soviet berada di bawah kontrol ideologis yang ketat oleh Stalin dan pemerintah, bersama dengan seni dan sastra. Ada kemajuan yang signifikan dalam "ideologis aman" domain, karena bebas pendidikan Soviet -sistem dan penelitian dibiayai negara. Namun, dalam beberapa kasus konsekuensi dari tekanan ideologi yang dramatis-yang penting contoh yang paling menjadi "borjuis pseudosciences" genetika dan sibernetika. Beberapa daerah fisika dikritik,[70][71] Namun, meskipun awalnya direncanakan,[72] sementara Stalin secara pribadi dan langsung memberikan kontribusi untuk belajar di Linguistik, karya prinsip yang merupakan esai kecil, "dan Bahasa Pertanyaan Marxisme."[73] Penelitian ilmiah adalah terhalang oleh kenyataan bahwa banyak ilmuwan dikirim ke kamp kerja paksa (termasuk Lev Landau, yang kemudian menjadi Hadiah Nobel pemenang, yang menghabiskan satu tahun di penjara di 1938-1939) atau dieksekusi (misalnya Lev Shubnikov, ditembak pada tahun 1937 ).
Pelayanan sosial
Artikel utama: demokrasi Soviet
Di bawah orang-orang pemerintah Soviet manfaat dari beberapa liberalisasi sosial. Gadis-gadis itu diberi sama, pendidikan yang memadai dan wanita memiliki hak yang sama dalam kerja,[12] memperbaiki kehidupan bagi perempuan dan keluarga. pembangunan Stalinis juga memberikan kontribusi untuk kemajuan dalam perawatan kesehatan, yang secara signifikan meningkatkan umur dan kualitas hidup warga Soviet khas.[12] Teman-kebijakan Stalin yang diberikan orang-orang Soviet akses universal untuk kesehatan dan pendidikan, efektif menciptakan generasi pertama bebas dari rasa takut dari tifus, kolera, dan malaria.[74] The kejadian penyakit ini turun untuk merekam angka yang rendah, meningkatkan rentang hidup dengan dekade.[74]
wanita Soviet di bawah Stalin adalah generasi pertama dari perempuan mampu melahirkan di rumah sakit keselamatan, dengan akses ke perawatan kehamilan.[74] Pendidikan juga merupakan contoh peningkatan standar hidup setelah pembangunan ekonomi. Generasi yang lahir pada pemerintahan Stalin adalah generasi dekat-universal melek pertama. Jutaan manfaat dari kampanye keaksaraan massa di tahun 1930, dan dari pekerja pelatihan skema.[75] Engineers dikirim ke luar negeri untuk mempelajari teknologi industri, dan ratusan insinyur asing dibawa ke Rusia pada kontrak.[74] Transportasi link ditingkatkan dan banyak yang baru kereta api dibangun. Pekerja yang melebihi kuota mereka, Stakhanovites, menerima banyak insentif untuk pekerjaan mereka;[75] mereka mampu untuk membeli barang yang diproduksi secara massal oleh Soviet ekonomi berkembang dengan cepat.
Peningkatan permintaan akibat industrialisasi dan penurunan tenaga kerja akibat Perang Dunia II dan represi menghasilkan ekspansi besar dalam kesempatan kerja bagi para korban, terutama bagi perempuan.[75]
Budaya
Artikel utama: Realisme Sosialis
Meskipun lahir di Georgia, Stalin menjadi seorang nasionalis Rusia dan dipromosikan secara signifikan sejarah Rusia, bahasa, dan pahlawan nasional Rusia, khususnya selama tahun 1930-an dan 1940-an. Dia memegang Rusia sebagai saudara tua dari minoritas non-Rusia.[76]
Selama ini pemerintahan Stalin yang resmi dan berumur panjang gaya Realisme Sosialis didirikan untuk lukisan, patung,, drama musik dan sastra. Sebelumnya modis "revolusioner" ekspresionisme, seni abstrak, dan avant-garde eksperimen adalah berkecil hati atau dikecam sebagai "formalisme".
Terkenal angka tersebut ditekan, dan banyak dianiaya, disiksa dan dieksekusi, baik "revolusioner" (di antara mereka Isaac Babel, Vsevolod Meyerhold, Anna Akhmatova, Nikolai Gumilev, Lev Gumilev) dan "non-konformis" (misalnya, Osip Mandelstam). Sejumlah kecil sisa-revolusioner Rusia pra selamat[klarifikasi diperlukan]. Tingkat pribadi keterlibatan's Stalin secara umum, dan dalam kasus tertentu, telah menjadi topik diskusi. novel favorit Stalin Firaun, berbagi kesamaan dengan Sergei Eisensteinfilm s ', Ivan the Terrible, diproduksi di bawah ini bimbingan Stalin.
Dalam arsitektur, seorang Stalinis Kekaisaran Style (pada dasarnya, diperbarui Neoclassicism pada skala yang sangat besar, dicontohkan oleh Seven Sisters Moskow) menggantikan konstruktivisme tahun 1920-an. Teman-pemerintahan Stalin memiliki efek mengganggu sebagian besar pada budaya adat di dalam Uni Soviet, meskipun politik Korenizatsiya dan dipaksa pengembangan yang mungkin bermanfaat bagi integrasi generasi kemudian budaya asli.
Agama
Artikel utama: Agama di Uni Soviet
Stalin mengikuti posisi diadopsi oleh Lenin bahwa agama adalah candu yang perlu dihilangkan dalam rangka membangun masyarakat komunis yang ideal. Untuk tujuan ini, pemerintahannya dipromosikan ateisme ateistik melalui pendidikan khusus di sekolah, sejumlah besar propaganda anti-agama, karya anti-lembaga publik (khususnya Masyarakat dari Godless), hukum diskriminatif, dan juga kampanye teror terhadap penganut agama. Oleh 1930-an telah menjadi berbahaya akan disampaikan kepada publik berkaitan dengan agama.[77]
peran Stalin pada nasib dari Gereja Ortodoks Rusia adalah kompleks. penganiayaan terus-menerus pada tahun 1930 mengakibatkan hampir punah-nya sebagai lembaga publik: pada tahun 1939, paroki aktif berjumlah ratusan rendah (turun dari 54.000 di 1917), banyak gereja sudah diratakan, dan puluhan ribu imam, biarawan dan biarawati dianiaya dan dibunuh. Lebih dari 100.000 ditembak selama pembersihan dari 1937-1938.[78] Selama Perang Dunia II, Gereja diizinkan kebangkitan sebagai organisasi patriotik, setelah NKVD telah merekrut yang baru metropolitan, yang pertama setelah revolusi, sebagai agen rahasia . Ribuan paroki diaktifkan kembali sampai putaran lebih lanjut dari penindasan di Khrushchev waktu. Gereja Ortodoks Rusia Sinode's Pengakuan pemerintah Soviet dan Stalin secara pribadi menyebabkan skisma dengan Gereja Ortodoks Rusia di luar Rusia.
Hanya beberapa hari sebelum kematian Stalin, sekte agama tertentu adalah dilarang dan dianiaya. Gereja, Banyak agama yang populer di daerah etnis dari Uni Soviet termasuk Katolik Roma Uniats, Baptis, Islam, Budha, Yudaisme, dll mengalami cobaan mirip dengan gereja-gereja Ortodoks di bagian lain: ribuan biarawan dianiaya, dan ratusan gereja , sinagoga, masjid, kuil, monumen suci, biara dan bangunan keagamaan lainnya diratakan.
Teoretisi
Artikel utama: Stalinisme
Stalin dan pendukungnya telah menyoroti gagasan bahwa sosialisme dapat dibangun dan dikonsolidasikan oleh negara sebagai berkembang seperti Rusia selama tahun 1920. Memang ini mungkin satu-satunya di mana ia bisa dibangun dalam lingkungan yang tidak bersahabat.[79] Pada tahun 1933, Stalin mengajukan teori kejengkelan dari perjuangan kelas seiring dengan perkembangan sosialisme, dengan alasan bahwa negara lebih jauh akan bergerak depan, bentuk yang lebih akut perjuangan akan digunakan oleh sisa-sisa ditakdirkan kelas pengeksploitasi dalam upaya putus asa terakhir mereka - dan bahwa, oleh karena itu, represi politik yang diperlukan.
Pada tahun 1936, Stalin mengumumkan bahwa masyarakat Uni Soviet terdiri dari dua kelas non-antagonis: pekerja dan kolkhoz tani. Ini berhubungan dengan dua bentuk yang berbeda dari milik atas alat-alat produksi yang ada di Uni Soviet: kekayaan negara (bagi pekerja) dan harta bersama (untuk kaum tani). Selain itu, Stalin membedakan strata intelektual. Konsep "non-antagonis kelas" sepenuhnya baru terhadap teori Leninis. Diantara's kontribusi Stalin untuk literatur teoritis Komunis "dialektis dan Materialisme Sejarah, "" Marxisme dan Pertanyaan Nasional "," Trotskisme atau Leninisme ", dan" Prinsip Leninisme. "
Menghitung jumlah korban
Para peneliti sebelum pembubaran 1991 Uni Soviet mencoba untuk menghitung jumlah orang yang tewas di bawah rezim Stalin yang dihasilkan estimasi waktu 3 sampai 60 juta.[80] Setelah Uni Soviet dibubarkan, bukti dari arsip Soviet juga menjadi tersedia, berisi catatan resmi eksekusi sekitar 800.000 tahanan di bawah Stalin untuk salah satu atau pidana kejahatan politik, sekitar 1,7 juta kematian di gulag dan beberapa 390.000 kematian selama kulak pemindahan paksa - total sekitar 3 juta resmi korban dalam mencatat kategori. untuk[81]
The arsip catatan resmi Soviet tidak mengandung angka yang komprehensif untuk beberapa kategori korban, seperti orang-orang dari etnis deportasi atau pemindahan penduduk Jerman pasca Perang Dunia II.[82] Pada 1948, menurut Nicolas Werth, angka kematian dari 600.000 orang dideportasi dari Kaukasus antara 1943 dan 1944 telah mencapai 25 persen.[83] pengecualian terkenal lainnya dari NKVD data pada kematian represi termasuk pembantaian Katyn, pembunuhan lain di daerah yang baru diduduki, dan penembakan massa dari Tentara Merah personil (desertir dan yang disebut desersi sehingga) pada tahun 1941. Soviet dieksekusi 158.000 tentara karena desersi selama perang,[84] dan "detasemen memblokir" dari ribuan NKVD ditembak lagi.[85] Selain itu, statistik resmi tentang kematian Gulag mengecualikan kematian tahanan terjadi tak lama setelah mereka dibebaskan tetapi yang dihasilkan dari perlakuan kasar di kamp-kamp.[86] Beberapa sejarawan juga percaya angka arsip resmi dari kategori yang direkam oleh pemerintah Soviet dapat diandalkan dan tidak lengkap.[87][88] Di samping kegagalan tentang rekaman yang komprehensif, sebagai salah satu contoh tambahan, Robert Gellately dan Simon Sebayang-Montefiore membantah banyak tersangka dipukuli dan disiksa sampai mati sementara di "tahanan investigasi" kemungkinan besar tidak telah dihitung di antara dieksekusi.[12][89]
Sejarawan kerja setelah Soviet Uni pembubaran tersebut telah memperkirakan korban total berkisar dari sekitar 4 juta untuk hampir 10 juta, tidak termasuk mereka yang meninggal dalam kelaparan.[90] Rusia penulis Vadim Erlikman, misalnya, membuat perkiraan sebagai berikut: eksekusi, 1,5 juta; gulag, 5 juta, deportasi, 1,7 juta dari 7,5 juta dideportasi, dan tawanan perang dan warga sipil Jerman, 1 juta - total sekitar 9 juta korban penindasan.[91]
Beberapa juga menyertakan kematian 6 sampai 8 juta orang dalam kelaparan 1932-1933 sebagai korban's penindasan Stalin. kategorisasi ini kontroversial Namun, sebagai sejarawan berbeda pendapat apakah bencana kelaparan merupakan bagian sengaja kampanye penindasan terhadap kulak dan lain-lain,[43][92][93] atau hanya sebuah konsekuensi yang tidak diinginkan dari perjuangan atas kolektivisasi paksa.[56][94][95]
Oleh karena itu, jika korban kelaparan dimasukkan, minimal sekitar 10 juta kematian-6 juta dari kelaparan dan 4 juta dari penyebab-lain dikaitkan dengan rezim,[96] dengan sejumlah sejarawan baru-baru ini menunjukkan total kemungkinan sekitar 20 juta , mengutip korban total yang lebih tinggi banyak dari eksekusi, gulag, deportasi dan penyebab lainnya.[97] Menambahkan 6-8.000.000 korban kelaparan dapat's perkiraan Erlikman di atas, misalnya, akan menghasilkan total antara 15 dan 17 juta korban. Peneliti Robert Conquest, sementara itu, telah merevisi perkiraan aslinya hingga 30 juta korban sampai 20 juta.[98] Dalam edisi terbaru tentang The Great Terror (2007), Penaklukan menyatakan bahwa sementara angka pastinya tidak akan pernah diketahui dengan lengkap kepastian, kampanye berbagai teror yang diluncurkan oleh pemerintah Soviet mengklaim tidak kurang dari 15 juta jiwa.[99] Lain-lain mempertahankan bahwa jumlah korban sebelumnya yang lebih tinggi perkiraan mereka sudah benar.[100][101]
World War II, 1939–1945
Main article: Joseph Stalin in World War II
Ribbentrop and Stalin at the signing of the Pact
Pact with Hitler
The frequent references in this article or section reduce readability.
Please improve the article by rearranging citations so they interrupt the text less frequently.
After a failed attempt to sign an anti-German military alliance with France and Britain[102][103][104] and talks with Germany regarding a potential political deal,[102][103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111] on 23 August 1939, the Soviet Union entered into a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany, negotiated by Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov and German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop.[112] Officially a non-aggression treaty only, an appended secret protocol, also reached on 23 August 1939, divided the whole of eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence.[113][114]
The eastern part of Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Finland and part of Romania were recognized as parts of the Soviet sphere of influence,[114] with Lithuania added in a second secret protocol in September 1939.[115] Stalin and Ribbentrop traded toasts on the night of the signing discussing past hostilities between the countries.[116]
Implementing the division of Eastern Europe and other invasions
On 1 September 1939, the German invasion of its agreed upon portion of Poland started World War II.[112] On 17 September the Red Army invaded eastern Poland and occupied the Polish territory assigned to it by the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, followed by co-ordination with German forces in Poland.[117][118] Eleven days later, the secret protocol of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was modified, allotting Germany a larger part of Poland, while ceding most of Lithuania to the Soviet Union.[119]
Planned and actual territorial changes in Eastern and Central Europe 1939–1940 (click to enlarge)
After Stalin declared that he was going to "solve the Baltic problem", by June 1940, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia were merged into the Soviet Union, after repressions and actions therein brought about the deaths of over 160,000 citizens of these states.[119][120][121][122] After facing stiff resistance in an invasion of Finland,[123] an interim peace was entered, granting the Soviet Union the eastern region of Karelia (10% of Finnish territory).[123]
After this campaign, Stalin took actions to bolster the Soviet military, modify training and improve propaganda efforts in the Soviet military.[124] In June 1940, Stalin directed the Soviet annexation of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina, proclaiming this formerly Romanian territory part of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic.[125] But in annexing northern Bukovina, Stalin had gone beyond the agreed limits of the secret protocol.[125]
Stalin and Molotov on the signing of the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact with the Empire of Japan, 1941
After the Tripartite Pact was signed by Axis Powers Germany, Japan and Italy, in October 1940, Stalin traded letters with Ribbentrop, with Stalin writing about entering an agreement regarding a "permanent basis" for their "mutual interests."[126] After a conference in Berlin between Hitler, Molotov and Ribbentrop, Germany presented the Molotov with a proposed written agreement for Axis entry.[125][127] On 25 November, Stalin responded with a proposed written agreement for Axis entry which was never answered by Germany.[128] Shortly thereafter, Hitler issued a secret directive on the eventual attempts to invade the Soviet Union.[128] In an effort to demonstrate peaceful intentions toward Germany, on 13 April 1941, Stalin oversaw the signing of a neutrality pact with Axis power Japan.[129]
Hitler breaks the pact
During the early morning of 22 June 1941, Hitler broke the pact by implementing Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of Soviet held territories and the Soviet Union that began the war on the Eastern Front.[130] Although Stalin had received warnings from spies and his generals,[131][132][133][134][135] he felt that Germany would not attack the Soviet Union until Germany had defeated Britain.[131] In the initial hours after the German attack commenced, Stalin hesitated, wanting to ensure that the German attack was sanctioned by Hitler, rather than the unauthorized action of a rogue general.[12]
Accounts by Nikita Khrushchev and Anastas Mikoyan claim that, after the invasion, Stalin retreated to his dacha in despair for several days and did not participate in leadership decisions.[136] However, some documentary evidence of orders given by Stalin contradicts these accounts, leading some historians to speculate that Khruschev's account is inaccurate.[137] By the end of 1941, the Soviet military had suffered 4.3 million casualties[138] and German forces had advanced 1,050 miles (1,690 kilometers).[139]
Soviets stop the Germans
While the Germans pressed forward, Stalin was confident of an eventual Allied victory over Germany. In September 1941, Stalin told British diplomats that he wanted two agreements: (1) a mutual assistance/aid pact and (2) a recognition that, after the war, the Soviet Union would gain the territories in countries that it had taken pursuant to its division of Eastern Europe with Hitler in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.[140] The British agreed to assistance but refused to agree upon the territorial gains, which Stalin accepted months later as the military situation deteriorated somewhat in mid-1942.[140] By December, Hitler's troops had advanced to within 20 miles of the Kremlin in Moscow.[141] On 5 December, the Soviets launched a counteroffensive, pushing German troops back 40–50 miles from Moscow, the Wehrmacht's first significant defeat of the war.[141]
In 1942, Hitler shifted his primary goal from an immediate victory in the East, to the more long-term goal of securing the southern Soviet Union to protect oil fields vital to a long-term German war effort.[142] While Red Army generals saw evidence that Hitler would shift efforts south, Stalin considered this to be a flanking campaign in efforts to take Moscow.[143] During the war, Time Magazine named Stalin Time Person of the Year twice[144] and he was also one of the nominees for Time Person of the Century title.
Soviet push to Germany
The Soviets repulsed the important German strategic southern campaign and, although 2.5 million Soviet casualties were suffered in that effort, it permitted the Soviets to take the offensive for most of the rest of the war on the Eastern Front.[145]
The Big Three: Stalin, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill at the Tehran Conference, November 1943.
Germany attempted an encirclement attack at Kursk, which was successfully repulsed by the Soviets.[146] Kursk marked the beginning of a period where Stalin became more willing to listen to the advice of his generals.[147] By the end of 1943, the Soviets occupied half of the territory taken by the Germans from 1941–1942.[147] Soviet military industrial output also had increased substantially from late 1941 to early 1943 after Stalin had moved factories well to the East of the front, safe from German invasion and air attack.[148]
In November 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in Tehran.[149] The parties later agreed that Britain and America would launch a cross-channel invasion of France in May 1944, along with a separate invasion of southern France.[150] Stalin insisted that, after the war, the Soviet Union should incorporate the portions of Poland it occupied pursuant to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Germany, which Churchill tabled.[151]
In 1944, the Soviet Union made significant advances across Eastern Europe toward Germany,[152] including Operation Bagration, a massive offensive in Belorussia against the German Army Group Centre.[153]
Final victory
By April 1945, Germany faced its last days with 1.9 million German soldiers in the East fighting 6.4 million Red Army soldiers while 1 million German soldiers in the West battled 4 million Western Allied soldiers.[154] While initial talk existed of a race to Berlin by the Allies, after Stalin successfully lobbied for Eastern Germany to fall within the Soviet "sphere of influence" at Yalta, no plans were made by the Western Allies to seize the city by a ground operation.[155][156]
On 30 April, Hitler and Eva Braun committed suicide, after which Soviet forces found their remains, which had been burned at Hitler's directive.[157] German forces surrendered a few days later. Despite the Soviets' possession of Hitler's remains, Stalin did not believe that his old nemesis was actually dead, a belief that remained for years after the war.[158][159]
Fending off the German invasion and pressing to victory in the East required a tremendous sacrifice by the Soviet Union.[160] Soviet military casualties totaled approximately 35 million (official figures 28.2 million) with approximately 14.7 million killed, missing or captured (official figures 11.285 million).[161] Although figures vary, the Soviet civilian death toll probably reached 20 million.[161] One of every four Soviet citizens was killed or wounded in that war.[162] Some 1,710 towns and 70,000 villages were destroyed.[163] Thereafter, Stalin was at times referred to as one of the most influential men in human history.[164][165]
Nobel Prize in Peace nominations
In 1945, he was mentioned by Halvdan Koht among seven candidates that were qualified for the Nobel Prize in Peace. However, he did not explicitly nominate any of them. The person actually nominated was Cordell Hull.[166]
In 1948, he was officially nominated for the Nobel Prize in Peace by Wladislav Rieger.[167]
Questionable tactics
Part of the 5 March 1940 memo from Lavrentiy Beria to Stalin proposing execution of Polish officers
After taking around 300,000 Polish prisoners in 1939 and early 1940,[168][169][169][170][171] 25,700 Polish POWs were executed on 5 March 1940, pursuant to a note from to Stalin from Lavrenty Beria, the members of the Soviet Politburo,[172][173] in what became known as the Katyn massacre.[174][172][175] While Stalin personally told a Polish general they'd "lost track" of the officers in Manchuria,[176][177][178][178] Polish railroad workers found the mass grave after the 1941 Nazi invasion.[179] The massacre became a source of political controversy,[180][181] with the Soviets eventually claiming that Germany committed the executions when the Soviet Union retook Poland in 1944.[172][182] The Soviets did not admit responsibility until 1990.[183]
Stalin introduced controversial military orders, such as Order No. 270, requiring superiors to shoot deserters on the spot[184] while their family members were subject to arrest.[185] Thereafter, Stalin also conducted a purge of several military commanders that were shot for "cowardice" without a trial.[185] Stalin issued Order No. 227, directing that commanders permitting retreat without permission to be subject to a military tribunal,[186] and soldiers guilty of disciplinary procedures to be forced into "penal battalions", which were sent to the most dangerous sections of the front lines.[186] From 1942 to 1945, 427,910 soldiers were assigned to penal battalions.[187] The order also directed "blocking detachments" to shoot fleeing panicked troops at the rear.[186]
In June 1941, weeks after the German invasion began, Stalin also directed employing a scorched earth policy of destroying the infrastructure and food supplies of areas before the Germans could seize them, and that partisans were to be set up in evacuated areas.[137] He also ordered the NKVD to murder around one hundred thousand political prisoners in areas where the Wermacht approached,[188] while others were deported east.[87][189]
After the capture of Berlin, Soviet troops reportedly raped from tens of thousands to two million women,[190] and 50,000 during and after the occupation of Budapest.[191][192] In former Axis countries, such as Germany, Romania and Hungary, Red Army officers generally viewed cities, villages and farms as being open to pillaging and looting.[193]
In the Soviet Occupation Zone of post-war Germany, the Soviets set up ten NKVD-run "special camps" subordinate to the gulag.[194] These "special camps" were former Stalags, prisons, or Nazi concentration camps such as Sachsenhausen (special camp number 7) and Buchenwald (special camp number 2).[195] According to German government estimates, "65,000 people died in those Soviet-run camps or in transportation to them."[196]
According to recent figures, of an estimated four million POWs taken by the Soviets, including Germans, Japanese, Hungarians, Romanians and others, some 580,000 never returned, presumably victims of privation or the Gulags.[197] Soviet POWs and forced laborers who survived German captivity were sent to special "transit" or "filtration" camps to determine which were potential traitors.[198]
Of the approximately 4 million to be repatriated 2,660,013 were civilians and 1,539,475 were former POWs.[198] Of the total, 2,427,906 were sent home and 801,152 were reconscripted into the armed forces.[198] 608,095 were enrolled in the work battalions of the defense ministry.[198] 272,867 were transferred to the authority of the NKVD for punishment, which meant a transfer to the Gulag system.[198][199][200] 89,468 remained in the transit camps as reception personnel until the repatriation process was finally wound up in the early 1950s.[198]
Allied conferences on post-war Europe
The Big Three: British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Stalin at the Yalta Conference, February 1945.
Stalin met in several conferences with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (and later Clement Attlee) and/or American President Franklin D. Roosevelt (and later Harry Truman) to plan military strategy and, later, to discuss Europe's postwar reorganization. Very early conferences, such as that with British diplomats in Moscow in 1941 and with Churchill and American diplomats in Moscow in 1942, focused mostly upon war planning and supply, though some preliminary postwar reorganization discussion also occurred. In 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in the Tehran Conference. In 1944, Stalin met with Churchill in the Moscow Conference. Beginning in late 1944, the Red Army occupied much of Eastern Europe during these conferences and the discussions shifted to a more intense focus on the reorganization of postwar Europe.
In February 1945, at the conference at Yalta, Stalin demanded a Soviet sphere of political influence in Eastern Europe.[201] Stalin eventually was convinced by Churchill and Roosevelt not to dismember Germany.[201] Stalin also stated that the Polish government-in-exile demands for self-rule were not negotiable, such that the Soviet Union would keep the territory of eastern Poland they had already taken by invasion with German consent in 1939, and wanted the pro-Soviet Polish government installed.[201] After resistance by Churchill and Roosevelt, Stalin promised a re-organization of the current Communist puppet government on a broader democratic basis in Poland.[201] He stated the new government's primary task would be to prepare elections.[202]
The parties at Yalta further agreed that the countries of liberated Europe and former Axis satellites would be allowed to "create democratic institutions of their own choice", pursuant to "the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live."[203] The parties also agreed to help those countries form interim governments "pledged to the earliest possible establishment through free elections" and "facilitate where necessary the holding of such elections."[203] After the re-organization of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland, the parties agreed that the new party shall "be pledged to the holding of free and unfettered elections as soon as possible on the basis of universal suffrage and secret ballot."[203] One month after Yalta, the Soviet NKVD arrested 16 Polish leaders wishing to participate in provisional government negotiations, for alleged "crimes" and "diversions", which drew protest from the West.[202] The fraudulent Polish elections, held in January 1947 resulted in Poland's official transformation to undemocratic communist state by 1949.
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, U.S. President Harry S. Truman and Premiere Joseph Stalin at the Potsdam Conference, July 1945.
At the Potsdam Conference from July to August 1945, though Germany had surrendered months earlier, instead of withdrawing Soviet forces from Eastern European countries, Stalin had not moved those forces. At the beginning of the conference, Stalin repeated previous promises to Churchill that he would refrain from a "Sovietization" of Eastern Europe.[204] Stalin pushed for reparations from Germany without regard to the base minimum supply for German citizens' survival, which worried Truman and Churchill who thought that Germany would become a financial burden for Western powers.[205]
In addition to reparations, Stalin pushed for "war booty", which would permit the Soviet Union to directly seize property from conquered nations without quantitative or qualitative limitation, and a clause was added permitting this to occur with some limitations.[205] By July 1945, Stalin's troops effectively controlled the Baltic States, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania, and refugees were fleeing out of these countries fearing a Communist take-over. The western allies, and especially Churchill, were suspicious of the motives of Stalin, who had already installed communist governments in the central European countries under his influence.
In these conferences, his first appearances on the world stage, Stalin proved to be a formidable negotiator. Anthony Eden, the British Foreign Secretary noted: "Marshal Stalin as a negotiator was the toughest proposition of all. Indeed, after something like thirty years' experience of international conferences of one kind and another, if I had to pick a team for going into a conference room, Stalin would be my first choice. Of course the man was ruthless and of course he knew his purpose. He never wasted a word. He never stormed, he was seldom even irritated."[206]
Post-war era, 1945–1953
The Iron Curtain and the Eastern Bloc
After Soviet forces remained in Eastern and Central European countries, with the beginnings of communist puppet regimes in those countries, Churchill referred to the region as being behind an "Iron Curtain" of control from Moscow.[207][208] The countries under Soviet control in Eastern and Central Europe were sometimes called the "Eastern bloc" or "Soviet Bloc".
The Eastern Bloc until 1989.
In Soviet-controlled East Germany, the major task of the ruling communist party in Germany was to channel Soviet orders down to both the administrative apparatus and the other bloc parties pretending that these were initiatives of its own,[209] with deviations potentially leading to reprimands, imprisonment, torture and even death.[209] Property and industry were nationalized.[209]
The German Democratic Republic was declared on 7 October 1949, with a new constitution which enshrined socialism and gave the Soviet-controlled Socialist Unity Party ("SED") control. In Berlin, after citizens strongly rejected communist candidates in an election, in June 1948, the Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin, the portion of Berlin not under Soviet control, cutting off all supply of food and other items. The blockade failed due to the unexpected massive aerial resupply campaign carried out by the Western powers known as the Berlin Airlift. In 1949, Stalin conceded defeat and ended the blockade.
While Stalin had promised at the Yalta Conference that free elections would be held in Poland,[203] after an election failure in "3 times YES" elections,[210] vote rigging was employed to win a majority in the carefully controlled poll.[211][212][213] Following the forged referendum, the Polish economy started to become nationalized.[214]
In Hungary, when the Soviets installed a communist government, Mátyás Rákosi, who described himself as "Stalin's best Hungarian disciple"[215] and "Stalin's best pupil",[216] took power. Rákosi employed "salami tactics", slicing up these enemies like pieces of salami,[217] to battle the initial postwar political majority ready to establish a democracy.[218] Rákosi, employed Stalinist political and economic programs, and was dubbed the "bald murderer" for establishing one of the harshest dictatorships in Europe.[218][219] Approximately 350,000 Hungarian officials and intellectuals were purged from 1948 to 1956.[218]
During World War II, in Bulgaria, the Red Army crossed the border and created the conditions for a communist coup d'état on the following night.[220] The Soviet military commander in Sofia assumed supreme authority, and the communists whom he instructed, including Kimon Georgiev, took full control of domestic politics.[220]
In 1949, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania founded the Comecon in accordance with Stalin's desire to enforce Soviet domination of the lesser states of Central Europe and to mollify some states that had expressed interest in the Marshall Plan,[221] and which were now, increasingly, cut off from their traditional markets and suppliers in Western Europe.[222] Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland had remained interested in Marshall aid despite the requirements for a convertible currency and market economies. In July 1947, Stalin ordered these communist-dominated governments to pull out of the Paris Conference on the European Recovery Programme. This has been described as "the moment of truth" in the post-World War II division of Europe.[222]
In Greece, Britain and the United States supported the anti-communists in the Greek Civil War and suspected the Soviets of supporting the Greek communists, although Stalin refrained from getting involved in Greece, dismissing the movement as premature. Albania remained an ally of the Soviet Union, but Yugoslavia broke with the USSR in 1948.
In Stalin's last year of life, one of his last major foreign policy initiatives was the 1952 Stalin Note for German reunification and Superpower disengagement from Central Europe, but Britain, France, and the United States viewed this with suspicion and rejected the offer.
Sino-Soviet Relations
Stalin and Mao Zedong on Chinese Postage stamp
In Asia, the Red Army had overrun Manchuria in the last month of the war and then also occupied Korea above the 38th parallel north. Mao Zedong's Communist Party of China, though receptive to minimal Soviet support, defeated the pro-Western and heavily American-assisted Chinese Nationalist Party in the Chinese Civil War.
There was friction between Stalin and Mao from the beginning. During World War II Stalin had supported the socialist dictator of China, Chiang Kai-Shek, as a bulwark against Japan and had turned a blind eye to Chiang's mass killings of communists. He generally put his alliance with Chiang against Japan ahead of helping his ideological allies in China in his priorities. Even after the war Stalin concluded a non-aggression pact between the USSR and Chiang's Kuomintang (KMT) regime in China and instructed Mao and the Chinese communists to cooperate with Chiang and the KMT after the war. Mao did not follow Stalin's instructions though and started a communist revolution against Chiang. Stalin did not believe Mao would be successful so he was less than enthusiastic in helping Mao. The USSR continued to maintain diplomatic relations with Chiang's KMT regime until 1949 when it became clear Mao would win.
Stalin did conclude a new friendship and alliance treaty with Mao after he defeated Chiang. But there was still a lot of tension between the two leaders and resentment by Mao for Stalin's less than enthusiastic help during the civil war in China.
The Communists controlled mainland China while the Nationalists held a rump state on the island of Taiwan. The Soviet Union soon after recognized Mao's People's Republic of China, which it regarded as a new ally. The People's Republic claimed Taiwan, though it had never held authority there.
Diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and China reached a high point with the signing of the 1950 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance. Both countries provided military support to a new friendly state in North Korea. After various Korean border conflicts, war broke out with U.S.-allied South Korea in 1950, starting the Korean War.
North Korea
Contrary to America's policy which restrained armament (limited equipment was provided for infantry and police forces) to South Korea, Stalin extensively armed Kim Il Sung's North Korean army and air forces with military equipment (to include T-34/85 tanks) and "advisors" far in excess of those required for defensive purposes) in order to facilitate Kim's (a former Soviet Officer) aim of conquering the rest of the Korean peninsula.
The North Korean Army struck in the pre-dawn hours of Sunday, 25 June 1950, crossing the 38th parallel behind a firestorm of artillery, beginning their invasion of South Korea.[223] During the Korean War, Soviet pilots flew Soviet aircraft from Chinese bases against United Nations aircraft defending South Korea. Post-Cold war research in Soviet Archives has revealed that the Korean War was begun by Kim Il-sung with the express permission of Stalin, though this is disputed by North Korea.[citation needed]
Israel
Stalin originally supported the creation of Israel in 1948. The USSR was one of the first nations to recognize the new country.[224] Golda Meir came to Moscow as the first Israeli Ambassador to the USSR that year. However, after providing war materiel for Israel through Czechoslovakia, he later changed his mind and came out against Israel.
Falsifiers of History
In 1948, Stalin personally edited and rewrote by hand sections of the cold war book Falsifiers of History.[225] Falsifiers was published in response to the documents made public in Nazi-Soviet Relations, 1939–1941: Documents from the Archives of The German Foreign Office,[226][227] which included the secret protocols of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and other secret German-Soviet relations documents.[226][228] Falsifiers originally appeared as a series of articles in Pravda in February 1948,[227] and was subsequently published in numerous language and distributed worldwide.[229]
The book did not attempt to directly counter or deal with the documents published in Nazi-Soviet Relations[230] and rather, focused upon Western culpability for the outbreak of war in 1939.[229] It argues that "Western powers" aided Nazi rearmament and aggression, including that American bankers and industrialists provided capital for the growth of German war industries, while deliberately encouraging Hitler to expand eastward.[226][229] It depicted the Soviet Union as striving to negotiate a collective security against Hitler, while being thwarted by double-dealing Anglo-French appeasers who, despite appearances, had no intention of a Soviet alliance and were secretly negotiating with Berlin.[229] It casts the Munich agreement, not just as Anglo-French short-sightedness or cowardice, but as a "secret" agreement that was a "a highly important phase in their policy aimed at goading the Hitlerite aggressors against the Soviet Union."[231] The book also included the claim that, during the Pact's operation, Stalin rejected Hitler's offer to share in a division of the world, without mentioning the Soviet offers to join the Axis.[232] Historical studies, official accounts, memoirs and textbooks published in the Soviet Union used that depiction of events until the Soviet Union's dissolution.[232]
Domestic Support
Domestically, Stalin was seen as a great wartime leader who had led the Soviets to victory against the Nazis. His early cooperation with Hitler was forgotten. That cooperation included helping the German Army violate the Treaty of Versailles limitations, with training in the Soviet Union, the notorious Molotov-von Ribbentrop treaty which partitioned Poland giving the Soviet Union what is now Belarus and granted the Soviet Union a free hand in Finland, Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia, and Soviet trade with Hitler to counteract the expected French and British trade blockades.
By the end of the 1940s, Russian patriotism increased due to successful propaganda efforts. For instance, some inventions and scientific discoveries were claimed by Soviet propaganda. Examples include the boiler, reclaimed by father and son Cherepanovs; the electric light, by Yablochkov and Lodygin; the radio, by Popov; and the airplane, by Mozhaysky. Stalin's internal repressive policies continued (including in newly acquired territories), but never reached the extremes of the 1930s, in part because the smarter party functionaries had learned caution.
"Doctors' plot"
Main article: Doctors' plot
The "Doctors' plot" was a plot outlined by Stalin and Soviet officials in 1952 and 1953 whereby several doctors (over half of whom were Jewish) allegedly attempted to kill Soviet officials.[233] The prevailing opinion of many scholars outside the Soviet Union is that Stalin intended to use the resulting doctors' trial to launch a massive party purge.[234] The plot is also viewed by many historians as an antisemitic provocation.[233] It followed on the heels of the 1952 show trials of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee[235] and the secret execution of thirteen members on Stalin's orders in the Night of the Murdered Poets.[236]
Thereafter, in a December Politburo session, Stalin announced that "Every Jewish nationalist is the agent of the American intelligence service. Jewish nationalists think that their nation was saved by the United States (there you can become rich, bourgeois, etc.). They think they're indebted to the Americans. Among doctors, there are many Jewish nationalists."[237] To mobilize the Soviet people for his campaign, Stalin ordered TASS and Pravda to issue stories along with Stalin's alleged uncovering of a "Doctors Plot" to assassinate top Soviet leaders,[238][239] including Stalin, in order to set the stage for show trials.[240]
The next month, Pravda published stories with text regarding the purported "Jewish bourgeois-nationalist" plotters.[241] Kruschev wrote that Stalin hinted him to incite anti-Semitism in the Ukraine, telling him that "the good workers at the factory should be given clubs so they can beat the hell out of those Jews."[242][243] Stalin also ordered falsely accused physicians to be tortured "to death".[244] Regarding the origins of the plot, people who knew Stalin, such as Kruschev, suggest that Stalin had long harbored negative sentiments toward Jews,[233][245][246] and anti-Semitic trends in the Kremlin's policies were further fueled by the exile of Leon Trotsky.[233][247] In 1946, Stalin allegedly said privately that "every Jew is a potential spy."[233][248] At the end of January 1953, Stalin's personal physician Miron Vovsi (cousin of Solomon Mikhoels, who was assassinated in 1948 at the orders of Stalin)[236] was arrested within the frame of the plot. Vovsi was released by Beria after Stalin's death in 1953, as was his son-in-law, the composer Mieczyslaw Weinberg.
Some historians have argued that Stalin was also planning to send millions of Jews to four large newly built labor camps in Western Russia[240][249] using a "Deportation Commission"[250][251][252] that would purportedly act to save Soviet Jews from an engraged Soviet population after the Doctors Plot trials.[250][253][254] Others argue that any charge of an alleged mass deportation lacks specific documentary evidence.[239] Regardless of whether a plot to deport Jews was planned, in his "Secret Speech" in 1956, Soviet Premier Nikita Kruschev stated that the Doctors Plot was "fabricated ... set up by Stalin", that Stalin told the judge to beat confessions from the defendants[255] and had told Politburo members "You are blind like young kittens. What will happen without me? The country will perish because you do not know how to recognize enemies."[255]
Death and aftermath
On the early morning hours of 1 March 1953, after an all-night dinner and a movie[256] Stalin arrived at his Kuntsevo residence some 15 km west of Moscow centre with interior minister Lavrentiy Beria and future premiers Georgy Malenkov, Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev where he retired to his bedroom to sleep. At dawn, Stalin did not emerge from his room, having probably suffered a stroke that paralyzed the right side of his body.
Stalin's Grave by the Kremlin Wall Necropolis
Although his guards thought that it was odd for him not to rise at his usual time, they were under strict orders not to disturb him and left him alone the entire day. At around 10 p.m. he was discovered by Peter Lozgachev, the Deputy Commandant of Kuntsevo, who entered his bedroom to check up on him and recalled a horrifying scene of Stalin lying on the floor of his room wearing pyjama bottoms and an undershirt with his clothes soaked in stale urine. A frightened Lozgachev asked Stalin what happened to him, but all he could get out of the Generalissimo was unintelligible responses that sounded like "Dzhh." Lozgachez frantically called a few party officials asking them to send good doctors.[257] Lavrentiy Beria was informed and arrived a few hours afterwards, and the doctors only arrived in the early morning of 2 March in which they changed his bedclothes and tended to him. The bedridden Stalin died four days later, on 5 March 1953,[2] at the age of 74, and was embalmed on 9 March. Officially, the cause of death was listed as a cerebral hemorrhage. His body was preserved in Lenin's Mausoleum until 31 October 1961, when his body was removed from the Mausoleum and buried next to the Kremlin walls as part of the process of de-Stalinization.
It has been suggested that Stalin was assassinated. The ex-Communist exile Avtorkhanov argued this point as early as 1975. The political memoirs of Vyacheslav Molotov, published in 1993, claimed that Beria had boasted to Molotov that he poisoned Stalin: "I took him out."
Khrushchev wrote in his memoirs that Beria had, immediately after the stroke, gone about "spewing hatred against [Stalin] and mocking him", and then, when Stalin showed signs of consciousness, dropped to his knees and kissed his hand. When Stalin fell unconscious again, Beria immediately stood and spat.[citation needed]
Later analysis of death
In 2003, a joint group of Russian and American historians announced their view that Stalin ingested warfarin, a powerful rat poison that inhibits coagulation of the blood and which predisposes the victim to hemorrhagic stroke (cerebral hemorrhage). Since it is flavorless, warfarin is a plausible weapon of murder. The facts surrounding Stalin's death will probably never be known with certainty.[258]
His demise arrived at a convenient time for Lavrenty Beria and others, who feared being swept away in yet another purge. It is believed[who?] that Stalin felt Beria's power was too great and threatened his own. According to Molotov's memoirs, Beria claimed to have poisoned Stalin, saying, "I took him out." Whether Beria or anyone else was directly responsible for Stalin's death, it is true that the Politburo did not summon medical attention for Stalin for more than a day after he was found.[259]
Reaction by successors
Grutas Park is home to a monument of Stalin, originally set up in Vilnius.
Monument to Stalin stood in Gori, Georgia until 2010 when it was demolished and moved to the Museum of Soviet Occupation.
The harshness with which Soviet affairs were conducted during Stalin's rule was subsequently repudiated by his successors in the Communist Party leadership, most notably by Nikita Khrushchev's repudiation of Stalinism in February 1956. In his "Secret Speech", On the Personality Cult and its Consequences, delivered to a closed session of the 20th Party Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Khrushchev denounced Stalin for his cult of personality, and his regime for "violation of Leninist norms of legality".
Views on Stalin in Russian Federation
Results of a controversial poll taken in 2006 stated that over thirty-five percent of Russians would vote for Stalin if he were still alive.[260][261] Fewer than a third of all Russians regarded Stalin as a murderous tyrant;[262] however, a Russian court in 2009, ruling on a suit by Stalin's grandson, Yevgeny Dzhugashvili, against the newspaper, Novaya Gazeta, ruled that referring to Stalin as a "bloodthirsty cannibal" was not libel.[263] In a July 2007 poll 54 percent of the Russian youth agreed that Stalin did more good than bad while 46 percent (of them) disagreed that Stalin was a cruel tyrant. Half of the respondents, aged from 16 to 19, agreed Stalin was a wise leader.[264]
In December 2008 Stalin was voted third in the nationwide television project Name of Russia (narrowly behind 13th century prince Alexander Nevsky and Pyotr Stolypin, one of Nicholas II's prime ministers), leading to accusations from Communist Party of the Russian Federation that the poll had been rigged in order to prevent him or Lenin being given first place.[265]
On 3 July 2009, Russia's delegates walked out of an Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe session to demonstrate their objections to a resolution for a remembrance day for the victims of both Nazism and Stalinism.[266] Only eight out of 385 assembly members voted against the resolution.[266]
In a Kremlin video blog posted on October 29, 2009, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev denounced the efforts of people seeking to rehabilitate Stalin's image. He said the mass extermination during the Stalin era cannot be justified.[267]
Personal life
Origin of name, nicknames and pseudonyms
Stalin's original Georgian is transliterated as "Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili" (Georgian: იოსებ ბესრიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი). The Russian transliteration of his name (Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили) is in turn transliterated to English as "Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili". Like other Bolsheviks, he became commonly known by one of his revolutionary noms de guerre, of which "Stalin" was only the last. Prior nicknames included "Koba", "Soselo", "Ivanov" and many others.[268]
Stalin is believed to have started using the name "K. Stalin" sometime in 1912 as a pen name.
During Stalin's reign his nicknames included:
"Uncle Joe", by western media, during and after the World War II.[269][270]
"Kremlin Highlander" (Russian: кремлевский горец), in reference his Caucasus Mountains origin, notably by Osip Mandelstam in his Stalin Epigram.
"Little Father of the Peoples" or "Papa Stalin". A common nickname in the USSR during his time in power, as he was portrayed as the paternal figure of the Revolution.[271][272][273][274]
Appearance
While photographs and portraits portray Stalin as physically massive and majestic (he had several painters shot who did not depict him "right"),[275] he was only five feet four inches high (160 cm).[275] (President Harry S. Truman, who stood only five feet nine inches himself, described Stalin as "a little squirt".[276]) His mustached face was fleshy and pock-marked, and his black hair later turned grey and thinned out. After a carriage accident in his youth, his left arm was shortened and stiffened at the elbow, while his right hand was thinner than his left and frequently hidden.[275] His dental health also deteriorated as he got older—when he died, he only had three of his own teeth remaining.[277] He could be charming and polite, mainly towards visiting statesmen,[275] but was generally coarse, rude, and abusive.[278] In movies, Stalin was often played by Mikheil Gelovani and, less frequently, by Aleksei Dikiy.
Marriages and family
Ekaterina "Kato" Svanidze, Stalin's first wife
Stalin and Nadezhda Alliluyeva
Stalin's son Yakov, whom he had with his first wife Ekaterina Svanidze, shot himself because of Stalin's harshness toward him, but survived. After this, Stalin said "He can't even shoot straight".[279] Yakov served in the Red Army during World War II and was captured by the Germans. They offered to exchange him for Field Marshal Friedrich Paulus, who had surrendered after Stalingrad, but Stalin turned the offer down, stating "You have in your hands not only my son Yakov but millions of my sons. Either you free them all or my son will share their fate."[280] Afterwards, Yakov is said to have committed suicide, running into an electric fence in Sachsenhausen concentration camp, where he was being held.[281] Yakov had a son Yevgeny, who is recently noted for defending his grandfather's legacy in Russian courts.
Stalin had a son, Vasiliy, and a daughter, Svetlana, with his second wife Nadezhda Alliluyeva. She died in 1932, officially of illness. She may have committed suicide by shooting herself after a quarrel with Stalin, leaving a suicide note which according to their daughter was "partly personal, partly political".[282] According to A&E Biography, there is also a belief among some Russians that Stalin himself murdered his wife after the quarrel, which apparently took place at a dinner in which Stalin tauntingly flicked cigarettes across the table at her. Historians also claim her death ultimately "severed his link from reality."[283]
Vasiliy rose through the ranks of the Soviet air force, officially dying of alcoholism in 1962; however, this is still in question. He distinguished himself in World War II as a capable airman. Svetlana emigrated to the United States in 1967. Stalin may have married a third wife, Rosa Kaganovich, the sister of Lazar Kaganovich.[284] In March 2001 Russian Independent Television NTV interviewed a previously unknown grandson living in Novokuznetsk, Yuri Davydov, who stated that his father had told him of his lineage, but, was told to keep quiet because of the campaign against Stalin's cult of personality.
Beside his suite in the Kremlin, Stalin had numerous domiciles. In 1919 he started with a country house near Usovo, he added dachas at Zuvalova and Kuntsevo (Blizhny dacha built by Miron Merzhanov). Before WWII he added the Lipki estate and Semyonovskaya, and had at least four dachas in the south by 1937, including one near Sochi. A luxury villa near Gagri was given to him by Beria. In Abkhazia he maintained a mountain retreat. After the war he added dachas at Novy Alon, near Sukhumi, in the Valdai Hills, and at Lake Mitsa. Another estate was near Zelyony Myss on the Black Sea. All these dachas, estates, and palaces were staffed, well furnished and equipped, kept safe by security forces, and were mainly used privately, rarely for diplomatic purposes.[285] Between places Stalin would travel by car or train, never by air; he flew only once when attending the 1943 Tehran conference.
Habits
Stalin enjoyed heavy drinking, but could keep it under control.[286] He would also often force those around him to join in the drinking.[286] Stalin preferred Georgian wine over Russian vodka, but usually ate traditional Russian food.[286]
Khrushchev reports in his memoirs that Stalin was fond of American cowboy movies.[287] He would often sleep until evening in his dacha, and after waking up summon high-ranking Soviet politicians to watch foreign movies with him in the Kremlin movie theater.[287] The movies, being in foreign languages, were given a running translation.[287] After the movie had ended, Stalin often invited the audience for dinner, even though the clock was usually past midnight.[287]
Religious beliefs and policies
Stalin had a complex relationship with religious institutions in the Soviet Union.[288] One story reports that while he studied at a seminary, he became a closet atheist.[289] However, this story fails on several obvious accounts, including Stalin's remaining religious, even pious, for some years longer.[290] One account states that Stalin's reversal on bans against the church during World War II followed a sign that he believed he received from heaven.[291]
Historian Edvard Radzinsky used recently discovered secret archives and noted a story that changed Stalin's attitude toward religion.[291] The story in which Ilya, Metropolitan of the Lebanon Mountains, claimed to receive a sign from heaven that "The churches and monasteries must be reopened throughout the country. Priests must be brought back from imprisonment, Leningrad must not be surrendered, but the sacred icon of Our Lady of Kazan should be carried around the city boundary, taken on to Moscow, where a service should be held, and thence to Stalingrad Tsaritsyn."[291]
Shortly thereafter, Stalin's attitude changed and "Whatever the reason, after his mysterious retreat, he began making his peace with God. Something happened which no historian has yet written about. On his orders many priests were brought back to the camps. In Leningrad, besieged by the Germans and gradually dying of hunger, the inhabitants were astounded, and uplifted, to see wonder-working icon Our Lady of Kazan brought out into the streets and borne in procession."[291] Radzinsky asked, "Had he seen the light? Had fear made him run to his Father? Had the Marxist God-Man simply decided to exploit belief in God? Or was it all of these things at once?."[291]
During the Second World War Stalin reopened the Churches. One reason could have been to motivate the majority of the population who had Christian beliefs. The reasoning behind this is that by changing the official policy of the party and the state towards religion, the Church and its clergymen could be to his disposal in mobilizing the war effort. On 4 September 1943, Stalin invited Metropolitan Sergius, Metropolitan Alexy and Metropolitan Nikolay to the Kremlin and proposed to reestablish the Moscow Patriarchate, which had been suspended since 1925, and elect the Patriarch. On 8 September 1943, Metropolitan Sergius was elected Patriarch.
Another reason that may have motivated this greater tolerance after the war, was the great failure of the persecutions of the 1920s and 1930s to actually achieve the intended result of eliminating religion.
The CPSU Central Committee continued to promote atheism and the elimination of religion during the remainder of Stalin's lifetime after the 1943 concordat.[292] Stalin's greater tolerance for religion after 1943 was limited, and persecutions resumed at the end of the war, although on a lesser scale than had been existent in the 1930s. For these reasons it is unlikely that Stalin had changed his atheistic rejection of religion during this last portion of his lifetime.
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